Élisée Reclus

“ Groaning under the lash, worn out by the march across the arid plateaux, burnt by the torrid and dusty atmosphere of the desert, the gangs of slaves trail their chains with difficulty to the brink of the well. Here they often full prostrate for the last time, and are left by the caravans to perish of hunger in the scorching rays of the sun. ”

“ In the inner labyrinth of narrow tortuous streets, most of the houses, here and there connected above the roadway by vaulted passages, have preserved their Arab physiognomy with their bare white walls and courts enclosed by arcades. Nearly all the structures erected by the Government — barracks, hospitals, prisons, magazines — recall the vast Turkish establisliments of like order in Constantinople ; the Maltese quarter in its turn resembles the suburbs of some small Italian town ; while the Marina is lined by sumptuous mansions like similar thoroughfares in the large European seaports. ”

“ It was the " rendezvous of travellers from the east and the west, and it contained all the advantages that man could desire. Whatsoever the whim of man might fancy could be obtained in Tunis. Its power and glory placed it as a sovereign above its rivals, the capitals of the east and west." Tunis might well have said, " I am the ladder of the temple, by which the faithful mount up to heaven." At the present day Tunis is still considered by all the North African Mussulmans, except those of Egypt and Marocco, the city of good taste, literature, and fashion — in short, a kind of African Paris. ”

“ The smallest plant, traces on the sands invisible to others, the atmospheric currents, all help to direct him along the right track or warn him of impending danger. He consults the fleecy cloudlet, and in the neighbourhood of the oases follows with the eye the long flight of the swallow and other birds of passage. Even unaided by sun and stars, he knows the right direction, and unerringly points to the precise quarter of the horizon leading to the wayside stations, and to the habitations of man on the verge of the desert. ”

“ The moving sands, the long stony hamadas, the torrid heats followed by sudden returns of cold, the pestiferous winds, the dust-storms, the " cloudless skies and shadeless earth," the vast distances, the long intervals between the wells — at times dried up, at times held by hostile tribes — all tend to enhance the perils of the route, and to explain the solemn earnestness with which caravans equip themselves for the journey across the wilderness. ”

“ The quarters built by the French architects seem to have been modelled on those of Marseilles; almost everywhere the picturesque Arab houses are masked by streets with regular and commonplace facades ; and the stranger may reside for a long time in a modern Algerian town without having ever to penetrate into those labyrinths of dwellings which recall an already antiquated epoch. But extensive tracts may still be traversed for hours together without meeting a single human habitation. ”

“ The historian Ibn- Khaldun was a native of Tunis. Outside the fortifications there are no straggling suburbs, and the desert begins at the very city gates ; the bluffs of the chain separating the Bahira from Lake Seljum alone bear a few dilapidated forts and two Mussulman convents. The palace of the Bardo, which stands in the plain, north of the Seljum depression, is not an isolated structure, but quite a separate quarter, with ramparts and towers, set apart not only for the prince but also for the whole court, garrison troops, and a large population of provision-dealers and artisans. ”

“ Premature marriages, such as prevail amongst the Arabs, are unknown, and when the Targui woman takes to herself a husband, ustlally at about the age of twenty, she fully knows her own mind and knows how to make her rights be respected. Like her husband, she may mount the mehari and journey across the desert to visit kindred and friends, without being called upon to account for her movements to anyone. But she rarely abuses this absolute freedom of action ; for according to Duveyrier's expression, the Targui woman, " very tenacious of her rights, is equally mindful of her duties." ”

“ No less remarkable than their physical strength and beauty is the shrewdness and intelligence of the Tibbus. Necessity, the great educator, has developed their mental faculties while sharpening their senses. They find their way across the trackless Avilderness by a sort of inspiration quite unintelligible to the European, and in all ordinary transactions they display surprising tact and skill, combined with great eloquence, cunning, and invention. Those who settle as traders in the surrounding oases easily get the better of their Negro or Arab competitors. ”

“ The largest village within the common enclosure of the oases lies at the south-west angle, and bears the name of Zenaga, recalling the ancient confederation of the Zenagas or Sanhejas, whom members are scattered over North Africa from Tunis to Senegal. So precious is water in this oasis that a kharruba, that is, the right to a third of a spring twice a month for an hour each time, costs £24 in Zenaga. The natives are distinguished by their handsome features and dignified bearing. Amongst them, as amongst so many other Berber communities, light hair and blue eyes are by no means rare. ”

“ In the oases the cultivated palms are crowded together in prodigious quantities, in that of Murzuk alone no less than a million being claimed by the Turkish Government, which also possesses large numbers in other plantations. In a country so destitute of other plants, it is impossible to overrate the economic importance of this marvellous plant, whose fruit, stem, branches, sprouts, fibre, sap, are all turned to account. Dates and cereals form the staple food of the settled communities, while for the nomads the date, with camel's milk, yields an all-satisfying and perfect nourishment. ”

“ Here begins the broad plain which stretches away without perceptible incline in the direction of the Kufra oases. Towards the north-west the range is interrupted by wide depressions, separating from each other some groups of steep or even inaccessible rocks. One of these, to the north-west of Tarso, is composed of sandstone blocks, which assume the most varied architectural forms — Roman amphitheatres, Byzantine churches, frowning fortresses. Interspersed among these more regular structures, which have a mean elevation of about 200 feet, are the fantastic outlines of men and animals. ”

“ Thus no river valley is found which, by its exceptional fertility or favourable position for intercourse, might have become a natural centre of attraction for the whole country. Hence Algeria is divided into as many distinct territories as there are isolated upland regions and river basins, and it is this disposition of the land that has at all times rendered its conquest so difficult. At present a centre of attraction denied it by nature is being gradually created by artificial means at the city of Algiers, with its new harbour, routes, and railways radiating in all directions. ”

“ On the terraces a special market is daily held for the barter of jewellery and textiles, but inaccessible to the men. Grown-up children pass the night abroad, boys in the gardens, on the seats of the cross-roads or in unoccupied houses, girls with some female friend or relation whose husband is from home. The natives of Ghadames are fundamentally of Berber stock, and the current speech closely resembles that of the Tuaregs and of the Siwah, Aujila and Jofra oases. ”

“ According to Bourguignat, six parallel faunas follow successively from north to south, in Algeria — those of the seaboard, of the coast ranges, of the central plateaux, of the southern ranges, of a now-dricd-up maritime zone, and lastly, of the Sahara. Since the separation of the European and North African areas, both have become modified, less, however, by the development of new varieties than through the disappearance of old forms. The loss has been greatest in Europe, where civilisation was earlier diffused ; but Mauritania also has lost some of its species even within the historic period. ”

“ On commencing the transit, the guide always admonishes the travellers to follow carefully in his footsteps, so as to avoid this danger. The sebkha of Tunis is much more inclined than the Runn of British India, presenting a slope of from 30 to 36 feet from east to west, whilst it is also much more perilous to traverse. A cloud of dust, or a mirage which hides or distorts the landmarks, a mistake on the part of the guide, or a stampede of the pack animals, might hurl the caravan into the midst of certain death. ”

“ The upland valleys of the Atlas range, with its almost European climate, are well suited for breeding all our domestic animals, as well as for the cultivation of all the plants peculiar to the temperate zone. The waters abound in turtles, and the river estuaries are frequented especially by the sabal, a species of salmon, highly prized for its delicate flavour. The oceanic fauna differs in other respects little from that of the "West Indian seas, the nautilus, flying-fish, and much-dreaded hammer-headed shark being found on both sides of the Atlantic. ”

“ According to the ancient Arab stories and traditions, the earth has often given way under the weight of the caravans, and the men and animals composing it have been swallowed up by these abysses, whoso mouth has immediately closed over the heads of its victims. South of the lake, in the neighbouring region of Nefzawa, in which numerous hot springs take their source, there is another natural well of unknown depth, which is called by the Berber name of Tawerga, and of which the tribes in the vicinity say, that it demands an annual sacrifice of a human being. ”

“ As in the time of the Iberians and Ligurians, kindred races continue to settle on the north coast of Africa, where the difference of latitude is largely compensated by the greater elevation of the land. The work of assimilation is thus being effected by the Mediterranean races, and to them will mainly be due the development of the New Algeria, with its cities, highways, industries, and general European culture. At the same time the work of civilisation has hitherto been carried out in a desultory and perfunctory manner. ”

“ In any case they are the least mixed, the inhabitants of Tibesti being perfectly homogeneous, and entirely free from intermixture with Arab or Berber immigrants, But this remarkable race, one of the most important in North Africa, at least for the extent of its domain, and altogether one of the most characteristic groups in the human family, is numerically one of the most insignificant on the continent. According to Nachtigal, the whole nation can scarcely comprise more than twenty-eight thousand souls, of whom not more than twelve thousand are scattered over the extensive Tibesti uplands. ”

“ The great majority of the Negro population resides neither in the capital nor in any of the other towns of the province. Faithful to their racial instincts, they have grouped themselves in small hamlets, where they live in huts made of palms, branches, and reeds. Neither the houses of the civilised Turks nor the tents of the nomad Arabs suit the habits of communities still following the same mode of life as their fellow-countrymen on the banks of the Niger and Lake Tsad. ”

“ The torrent born of a shower rushes wildly down the slopes, in its impetuous course sweeping away the domestic animals, goats, sheep, at times even the camel. After it has passed, the valley again becomes dry, but the pure water is retained in the fissures of the rocks and in deep caverns, around which arc grouinxi the habitations of man 428 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. and his cattle. A little grass and a few shrubs spring up in the hollows, wherever the moisture can be stored ; acacias also of various species, and one or two other plants, develop here and there a few thickets of stunted growth. ”

“ The inhabitants of the oasis, grouped in four villages, claim some to be Berbers, others Arabs, but are in fact so mixed by crossings with slaves, that they look more like Negroes than Semites or Hamites. In every house a state room is decorated with copper vases representing the price paid for their wives, who pride themselves in displaying all this glittering treasure.
North-east of Ghadames, on the slope of the plateau facing the desert, lie the palm groves of the Sinaun oasis, one of the caravan stations on the route between Ghadames and Tripoli. ”

“ The dwarf -palm, so common in Algeria, is somewhat rare in Marocco, being found in thickets only in the province of Haha, round about Mogador. One of the most remarkable of the indigenous species is the argania sideroxylon, a tree which has often been compared to the olive, and which is found only in the southern districts beyond the Wed Tensif t. It grows in the most arid soil, and needs no irrigation. All domestic animals except the horse and ass eat its berries eagerly, while from the kernel the natives extract a peculiar oil, disagreeable to the European palate. ”

“ Except in Western Europe and in Mauritania, where it reached the ocean, the Roman world was hemmed in on all sides by unknown regions and hostile populations ; foreign pressure was constantly felt on the frontiers, and the political equilibriimi was at last overthrown by the migration of the barbarians. Now the conditions are changed, and the modern European world, instead of being surrounded, everywhere encircles the less cultured populations, incessantly en- croaching on their domain, and transforming them by the introduction of new industries and new usages. ”

“ When he belongs to a race with complexion grey as the sands, or red as the soil of the hamada, he lays his garments aside and rolls naked on the ground, the better in this disguise to reconnoitre passing strangers and ascertain whether they be friend or foe. ”

“ To the north-west are the camping-grounds of the Ulad Yuhiya, and to the west, near the sources of the rivers falling into lake Eelbia, those of the Majer tribe. The region now traversed by these semi- Arab Berber nomads is one of those most densely inhabited by settled communities some two thousand years ago. The upper basin of the Wed-el-Fekka, a watercourse which changes its name at each successive confluence, lies in a district of Tunis where Roman remains occur in the greatest abundance. ”

“ No doubt, in the various regions of Sudan salt can be procured by the combustion of certain plants and by several other processes. But they are all so tedious and difficult, and the yield is of such a poor quality, that the chief supply naturally comes from the desert. No region of the Sahara contains larger deposits of excellent salt than the Bilma district, which accordingly attracts buyers from far and wide. In order to welcome the strangers, the native women receive them by throwing handfuls of salt over their clothes, as if to say, " The best of the land for you ! ”

“ Of the vast but still scantily peopled productive lands in Algeria, only a very small portion has hitherto been turned to any account. Most of the occupied districts are either grazing-grounds left in a state of nature, or subjected to a rudimentary system of tillage. Even in the Tell vast tracts are absolutely barren, while on the plateaux argillaceous or saline wastes cover boundless spaces. Most of the now treeless northern parts might, however, be clothed with a forest vegetation, and thus play an important part in modifying the climate and developing the economic conditions of the land. ”

“ There is an excellent breed of camels, resembling those of the Ahaggar Tuaregs, with long legs, swift and surefooted in climbing rocky hills, but more difficult to feed than those on the Mediterranean coastlands. They are well cared for by the Tibbus, who also possess a hardy breed of asses, some slughi- hounds, and short-haired goats of good stock. The broad-tailed sheep of Egypt and eastern Mauritania is unknown in Tibesti, where it is replaced by a magnificent species with long legs and tail, covered with a thick coat of black fleecy wool. ”

“ In the interior the relief of the land is no less favourable than its general outlines. The longitudinal zones, elsewhere sharply defined in Mauritaniu, here lose their abrupt contrasts, while the great inlet of the Gulf of Tunis com- pletely turns the rugged coast range, giving access to the inland plateaux through the Mejerda and Melleg vallej's. On the east coast, also south of the Gulf of Hammamat, the marine basin penetrates far inland towards the central regions of Algeria, while the great trade route across the desert has its terminus on the Gulf of Cabes. ”

“ A large strain of Negro blood may everywhere be recognised among the inhabitants of Algeria, and whole tribes even among the highland Kabyles betray clear proofs of crossing between the aborigines of the seaboard and the Sudanese Negroes. Perhaps more than one-half of the Algerians who pass for Arabs or Berbers are of mixed descent ; but pure Negroes are now rarely met, owing to the almost complete interruption of direct intercourse across the Sahara between the Mediterranean seaboard and Western Sudan. ”