Marine bird

“ At sea not only do we see marine birds, but often, when near any point or headland, we are visited by land birds, who, blown off from the land, pursue their bewildered flight until exhausted, or, meeting a vessel, they alight upon it to refresh their wearied forms. At first they fly around and around the ship, as if fearful of molestation, when, overcome by fatigue, they forget their natural dread of mankind, and alight in the boats, or on deck, unable to move farther. ”

“ The change in the diet of fishes with growth results in competition with a changing variety of marine birds. For example, deep-diving birds may replace surface feeders as the major bird competitors of the Pacific cod and pollock as these fish increase in size and seek deeper waters. ”

“ In our discussion, we mainly consider predation by birds on commercial fish and competition between birds and commercial fish for food. The extent of these interactions determines the potential for birds and fish to influence each other's abundance. The extent of the interactions also determines the impact of man's commercial harvest of fish on the abundance of birds or of the bird's harvest on the abundance of fish.
The extent of the interaction between marine birds and commercial fish depends on the abundance, distribution, feeding habits, and life history of the fish species of concern. ”

“ They are the birds of the wide ocean, even showing small partiality for narrow seas, and chiefly frequenting for breeding purposes only such spots as face the widest expanses of water. They are the most marine of birds, yet they form one of the least apparent features in the bird-life of the sea, and more especially when that bird-life is studied from the coast. Their crepuscular, or nocturnal, habits during their short visits to the land to breed, their sombre hues, their low flight, just above the waves, all combine in rendering these birds exceptionally difficult of observation. ”

“ Marine bird excrement is especially rich in nitrates and phosphates, which phytoplankton, the basis of ocean food pyramids, requires. Marine birds then, at least to some extent, help to sustain the northern commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishing industries. ”

“ Since some species of marine bird are known not to breed before at least 3 or more years of age, meaningful information on survival and recruitment in populations cannot be obtained by studies of less than 10 years. We therefore recommend that long-term studies be initiated at as many places as possible, but at least at one site on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta; at a mainland colony site that has predominantly murres, kittiwakes, puffins, and cormorants ”

“ For example, the less time it takes the pelagic eggs of demersal fish and shellfish to hatch and complete pelagic larval life, the less is the time they will be preyed on by marine birds. For fish species that are pelagic during their entire life, the rate of growth will deter [Pg 211] mine how long they remain small enough for birds to eat. Some of the smaller pelagic fish, such as herring, capelin, and smelt, are vulnerable to bird predation most of their lives; larger pelagic species like salmon may be preyed on for only a very short time. ”

“ In this paper we examine some social and economic indicators that are believed to demonstrate people's growing awareness and interest in marine birds. These indicators involve a broad spectrum of values and illustrate the critical need for adoption of a strong North American marine bird conservation program. ”

“ In this paper, we consider how marine birds and fish interact. Although some of what we present is only speculative, we identify certain areas that have received little or no scientific study, areas in which further research is needed for a better understanding of the role of commercial fish in the ecology and dynamics of marine birds in the eastern Bering Sea. ”

“ Because marine birds and the natural environments they inhabit are jointly valued [Pg 182] over time and are jointly owned, it is important to ask not only what is efficient from the point of view of the present generation but also what is equitable across generations.
References
Belopol'skii, L. O. 1961. Ecology of sea colony birds of the Barents Sea. (Transl. from Russian.) Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. 346 pp.
Bourne, W. R. P. 1972. Threats to seabirds. Int. Counc. Bird Preserv. Bull. II:200-218.
Brandt, H. 1943. ”

“ Let our bird, however, but get upon the face of the waters, and we shall see it swim with grace and ease, while the very position of its legs, which renders it a bad walker, is suited to facilitate its diving. It dives very low, and the wings aid its progress as it rises to the surface when some tempting fish, or marine insect, induces it to urge onwards with great rapidity. It is by means of these short wings, too, that the guillemots clear the projecting ledges of rocks and cliffs, and jump from point to point, till they reach those high, and to us inaccessible, spots where they often build. ”

“ Quite apart from these true oceanic nomads are the large class of sea-birds who, while gathering their food exclusively from the sea, never go to any great distance from land. This difference between them and the birds before mentioned is so strongly marked, that unobservant as sailors are generally, there are few who do not recognise the97 vicinity of land upon catching sight of a man-o’-war bird, booby, gannet, or bo’sun. ”

“ Its flight is remarkably quick, the long tail making the bird look extremely elegant. It is also an expert diver, disappearing as quick as thought, and often going for long distances beneath the surface, like a Grebe or a Shag. It obtains most of its food by diving, and, like the Eider, often comes shorewards with the tide. It feeds in deeper water, too, than many of its allies, as much of its prey is captured, not at the bottom, but floating in the sea. This food consists of small molluscs, crustaceans, minute marine animals, insects, and water plants, and weeds. ”

“ Seventeen species of marine birds are spread either circumpolarly around the northern perimeter or along the north-south coasts of the Laurasian continents. Four of these are of the High Arctic (Branta bernicla, Somateria spectabilis, Xema sabini, Alle alle) ; another seven penetrate the Bering Sea as well (Fulmarus glacialis, Somateria mollissima, Clangula hyemalis, Larus hyperboreus, Rissa tridactyla, Sterna paradisaea, Uria lomvia) ”

“ Some species of marine birds may interact with fish as predators and competitors. As an example, pursuit diving birds, such as murres and puffins, may be important predators on juvenile salmon in the eastern Bering Sea, but these same birds may compete for food with adult salmon. Surface-feeding birds, such as fulmars, shearwaters, kittiwakes, and gulls, may be important as both predators and competitors with herring and capelin and some demersal fish. ”

“ We also use as examples those species of marine birds whose abundance in the eastern Bering Sea and feeding habits give them the greatest potential for influence on, or being influenced by, fish abundance. ”

“ The graceful marine birds which follow the ship, day after day, darting hither and thither with arrowy swiftness, lured by the occasional refuse thrown from on board, would be seriously missed were they to leave us. ”

“ In watching the actions of this bird, the observer cannot fail to remark its singular habit of turning over shells and other objects, in quest of the small marine creatures that lurk under them, with its conical shaped beak, and perhaps occasionally with its breast as well. ”

“ The prevailing colour of the plumage is white, often varied on the upper parts by a pearly grey, or black.
These birds are found in all parts of the world, feeding greedily on all kinds of animal substances; others, as already remarked, seek their food in the interior of the land, which consists of slugs, worms, and the larvæ of insects. Some few are bold and cunning, attacking other marine birds, and forcing them to disgorge the fish they have swallowed, which these then snap up before it reaches the sea. ”

“ Since earliest times, marine birds have accompanied the evolution of human societies in coastal and insular environments of the world. Their social value is in part recorded in kitchen middens of ancient campsites and villages. From the time man first inhabited the seacoasts and ventured out in ships, the company of seabirds has added life and inspiration to what otherwise would be a bleak and desolate landscape. ”

“ To know enough about places where seabirds, waterfowl, and shorebirds gather on migration and during the winter to identify those areas which need special protection from effects of economic development.
a. It is important to determine the areas where marine birds gather at sea when they are away from their breeding grounds. What factors of habitat and food supply make certain places preferable to others? ”

“ Migratory birds make up a resource that is shared by many people of many nations. Public awareness of marine birds—their manifold values, ecological requirements, and problems—is prerequisite to their protection. I am proud that the Fish and Wildlife Service can further this needed awareness by publishing these proceedings of the international symposium "Conservation of Marine Birds of Northern North America." ”

“ Coastal and offshore waters south of the reaches of the seasonal ice pack are tremendously productive, supporting a diverse wealth of bird life throughout the year. Because these ecosystems are relatively stable and the impact of temporal oscillations on the physical environment is not as great as in the Arctic, birds in these areas are probably least susceptible to man's influence on a long-term basis. ”

“ Only one in five survives to go to sea.
Until about 5 years ago we knew little about seabirds. They are not game species (they taste fishy) and thus do not constitute an important economic resource. They have never been the subject of intensive waterfowl management or research by either State or Federal governments.
During the last 5 years a small group of people here and in England have been studying marine birds—their distribution, population status, physiology, diseases, and husbandry in captivity. ”

“ The passengers deciding to catch some of the birds, a line, with a small baited hook, was trailed out astern, and seven pigeons were soon hauled aboard, being caught in the mouth precisely as a fish is.
The first thing any ocean bird does upon being put on the deck of a ship, is to become sea-sick ”

“ Longline fishing and inshore gill-net fishing for salmon and cod also are responsible for mortality of seabirds, although usually not in significant numbers.
That the activities of commercial fishermen have caused mortality of marine birds surprises no one nowadays. Traditions of exploitation of marine birds by fishermen date from previous centuries, and fishing has contributed to the extinction of some species. ”

“ We must move away from the concept that seabirds are merely yo-yos of various sizes, shapes, and colors on strings of various lengths that venture forth to sea from the land, grab a quick lunch, and then return to the safety of terra firma. Seabirds are marine organisms and deserve at least as much research attention as that currently given marine mammals. ”

“ Habitats for breeding marine birds are found along much of the 4,100-km coastline of Alaska that fronts on the Chukchi and Bering seas. Seasonal sea ice and an extensive outer continental shelf are dominant features that contribute to the productivity of these marine waters, which sustain populations of fishes, birds, and mammals that are of considerable and diverse values to man (Kelley and Hood 1974) . ”

“ The plumage of the tropical birds, the down on the most brilliant butterfly's wing, are not more beautiful in coloring than the hues of many Radiates, and there is no grace of motion surpassing the movements of some of them in their native element. The habit of keeping marine animals in tanks is happily growing constantly more popular, and before long the beauty of these inhabitants of the ocean will be as familiar to us as that of Birds and Insects. ”

“ Goals for Research on Population Dynamics of Seabirds for Purposes of Conservation
1. To learn the distribution and relative importance of seabird colonies, the number of pairs nesting and nonbreeding individuals at each colony, and the timing of breeding activities for each geographical region. The most important step toward conserving marine birds is to get public ownership and protection for their breeding grounds. ”

“ Though objects of never-ending interest to every one who journeys through the warmer seas, flying fishes do not really fly. They merely skim for long distances through the air, just as the flying squirrel and the flying dragon do; but instead of having a broad parachute-like membrane to buoy them up, they are supported in the air by the pectoral or breast fins, which are very large. These fins do not beat the air, like the wings of a bird. They merely support the body. And the power of the so-called flight is due to a stroke of the tail just as the fish leaves the water. ”

“ Because of the rigor of carrying out their primary duties while at sea, only a very few North American and European oceanographers or fishery biologists have found time to interest themselves in seabirds and then, with a few notable individual exceptions, only as an off-duty pastime. ”

“ The flying-fish and dolphins, bonetas and sharks, like the “Portuguese men-of-war,” were long since all left behind; but their places were taken by the albatross, the Cape pigeon, the shearwater, and a sea-bird called the “parson,” dozens of which flew about the ship every day. ”