Edwin W. Foster

“ The Sycamore Maple. In the rows on rows of maples so common in our towns and cities one will [81] often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser than any of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an importation from Europe, known as the sycamore maple because of its resemblance to the sycamore leaf. It is easily identified by its large size, coarseness, the very long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire edge is finely toothed,—in which point it differs from all the foregoing varieties. ”

“ The houses we live in, the chairs we sit on,—in fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our pictures, the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we write with, are of wood which was once part of the living forest. ”

“ White pine needles grow in groups of five and are from three to four inches long. The cones which contain the seeds are about five inches long. The tree grows tall and straight, and formerly grew in great forests covering thousands of square miles; the wood is so free from pitch and is so easily worked with tools that these great forests have been almost annihilated by the lumberman’s ax, and white-pine timber has become quite expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in the future white pine will be only a memory. ”

“ A mechanical, or working, drawing is quite different from a pictorial drawing such as an artist produces. The artist’s drawing represents objects as they appear, while the mechanical drawing represents them as they really are. Things in nature do not look as they are. ”

“ Growing in the shade of other trees and forming part of the undergrowth of our North woods is a small tree known as the striped maple, from the stripes which run up and down its bark. The New England name for this little mountain tree is moosewood, from the fact that the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which form his chief food in winter. ”

“ The names buttonwood, buttonball, sycamore, and plane tree, as the same tree is called in different parts of the country, all apply to that fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its leaves, leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which produces an enormous crop of buttonballs so well known to country boys and girls. ”

“ Every boy who has owned a rowboat knows that oars are made of wood from the ash. This is because the oar must be elastic as well as strong, and the timber of the ash tree supplies these two qualities. The ash is one of our tallest and noblest forest trees. It is rather slim in build, with beautiful clean shiny green foliage. The members of this group seem to be fond of colors, and we have the white ash, red ash, green ash, blue ash, and black ash. ”

“ The Birches. If the black birch with its sweet, aromatic bark is not known to a boy, the white, or canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems to be the fate of this beautiful tree to be disfigured by every wandering youth who has strength enough to tear off a strip of its paper-like bark.
Fig. 105. Leaf of Black Birch
The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distinguished from the elm by its smoothness and thinness. ”

“ The lumber furnished by the tulip tree, commonly called whitewood, is less liable to warp than gum wood, and is somewhat harder. Just why it should be called whitewood is not clear, as it is much darker than white pine and of a greenish-yellow color. The leaf of the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only four points, without any small teeth, and with an outline so odd that one often wonders if nature did not use a pair of scissors in cutting it out. ”

“ It is as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes a high polish and has a fine grain, it soon dulls the edge of a tool.
Before the age of steel, when all ships were wooden, it was much used in shipbuilding, and the government bought large tracts of land where live oak grew abundantly, so that the United States navy should never lack the necessary timber. ”

“ No better period can be selected in which to study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than when the student is working with wood, learning by experience its grain, hardness, color, and value in the arts. ”

“ The different trees in the white-oak family all have leaves with rounded lobes, and most of those in the red-oak group have pointed ones, yet there is a difference between members of the same family, just as among human beings.
We can tell at a glance whether a man is a negro, a Chinaman, or a white man. If a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American; and again, if an American, he may belong to the Jones family. But all the members of the Jones family do not look alike and we know one from another.
Fig. 80. Leaf of the Post Oak ”

“ It must always be kept in mind that a surface which has been sandpapered has become “gritty,” i.e. the fine sand has come off and is more or less imbedded in the wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done until all tool work has been finished, as the grit will take the edge off the best tool, and the finer the edge the more quickly will it be ruined.
Fig. 48. An Exercise involving the Use of Sandpaper
Again, a sandpapered surface is always a scratched surface, and the finest of scratched surfaces cannot compare with the perfectly smooth, satiny surface produced by a sharp plane. ”

“ The redwood is the only lumber that can take the place of the white pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany and black walnut, displace oak for railroad ties, cypress and cedar for shingles, and surpass all other woods for durability when in contact with the earth or when exposed to moisture. ”

“ For this kind of work only a small portion of the cutting edge can be used, the student judging for himself how heavy a cut to take by the hardness of the wood and amount of strength required. Good work can never be done when one has to exert all his strength on the tool. The best results are obtained when we work easily.
Fig. 33. Proper Position for Vertical Chiseling
Better work can usually be done with the chisel if, instead of pushing it straight ahead or straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to secure a slight paring action. ”

“ A leaf having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong to either tree if there were no other way to distinguish them. The teeth on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper than on the butternut, and the fuzzy stem is lacking. The green nuts, too, are different, the black walnuts being just about the size and shape of green lemons, the butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistakable feature is the odor. Having once smelled the crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut, a person will thereafter need no other test. ”

“ The pignut hickory is so called because the nuts in some parts of the country are used to feed the pigs. It is also called broom hickory. The nuts are small and become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood, however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard and tough. There is a difference between strength and toughness. Oak is strong, but not tough. Hickory is both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will stand bending without breaking. A wood which will bend easily but is not strong cannot be called tough. ”

“ Observe carefully the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch of the next form.
The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its timber is used as a standard when comparing different [66] kinds of wood. If we say that the strength of white pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak, and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard, just as the yard and mile are standards of length. In work which requires strength, such as carriage making, shipbuilding, and cooperage, white oak is used very extensively. ”

“ Screw s lowers or raises the plane iron so that we may take a thin or thick shaving, and lever l straightens the iron, which is liable to project more on one side than on the other, and will then take a shaving thicker on one side than on the other.
Before using the plane always examine it carefully. Invert the tool, holding it toward the light with the toe toward you, and glance along the bottom. If the iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not, move the lever until it is. ”

“ There are slight differences in the leaves and seeds, but, as in other trees, when we have once seen an ash seed we can always thereafter distinguish an ash tree. Fig. 102 shows the seed of the red ash. It is a winged seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing.
Fig. 102. Red Ash
The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to seven leaflets and the black ash has from seven to [93] eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and elastic, has a handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those farm implements which require strength. ”

“ Fig. 115. Leaf and Bract of Linden
The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs in spring the bark can be separated from the wood and a whistle or simple flute manufactured.
[106]
The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being used chiefly by pulp makers, but it grows where no other trees can exist, being found nearly all over the world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any other broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over one hundred and fifty varieties, which vary from small shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high. ”

“ Being tall, with foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives the desired shade, yet does not obstruct the view; while its stately dignity gives an air of comfort and repose to the grounds, which it seems to protect from the elements.
Its wood is valuable for certain kinds of work, being tough and strong, but it is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is difficult to polish. It is used considerably for wheel hubs and in cooperage.
Fig. 104. Leaf of American Elm
Observe the edge of the elm leaf carefully. ”

“ For a thin shaving the cutting edge should appear as a black line of uniform thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the brass screw until the iron projects slightly.
In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand with the right side to the bench and with the shoulders thrown back. Let the pressure of the left hand be greater at the beginning and that of the right hand at the end of the stroke. The tool should rest perfectly flat on the wood from start to finish.
Fig. 23. Irons of Smooth and Jack Planes
10. ”

“ Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or jointer, and smooth with smoothing plane. This face, called the working face, becomes the basis from which all the other sides are squared.
Second. Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the try-square, and must be square with the working face at every point.
Third. Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face. ”

“ For example, when we stand on a railroad track the rails appear to converge until they seem to meet in the distance. We know that this is not the case, that the rails are really everywhere equally distant. The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive, [44] drawing takes no account of perspective. ”

“ The backsaw is a crosscut saw with small teeth, and has a heavy steel backpiece, Fig. 17, to prevent bending. In this respect it differs from the ordinary crosscut varieties, which bend readily. The purpose of the backsaw is to make fine, straight cuts in delicate, accurate work. The steel [16] back B is necessary on account of the thin blade, but on account of the thickness of B no cut can be made deeper than the line C. This tool will cut in any direction with reference to the grain, but is primarily a crosscut saw. ”

“ Two classes of chisels are in common use: the framing chisel used for heavy work, such as the frames of buildings; and the firmer chisel. The framing chisel is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of withstanding the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is designed for finer and lighter work without the mallet.
Fig. 30. The Framing Chisel
Fig. 31. The Firmer Chisel
Fig. 32. Proper Position for Horizontal Chiseling
The chisel must be sharp if we wish to do good and accurate work, and a cut on the hand made by such a sharp tool is liable to be a deep one. ”

“ The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel, but sometimes the beam A is of wood with a brass strip C to protect it and to take the wear. The blade B is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into inches and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made in several sizes, the most convenient for general use being six inches.
Fig. 4. Methods of using the Try-Square
In using the try-square the beam should be held firmly against the face or edge of the stock. ”

“ For nice, accurate work the knife point instead of the pencil should be used for lining.
When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it is first necessary to mark or square clear around it with the knife and try-square. In doing this the beam of [8] the try-square must be used against the work face and joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one piece are called framing squares, and are used by carpenters and others for rough or large work.
Fig. 5. The Framing Square
Fig. 6. The Marking Gauge
3. ”

“ They grow directly out of the water and are famous for a peculiar formation of the roots called cypress knees,—lumpy growths which come up out of the water as if they were in search of air. The cypress is a tall, spirelike tree, which has the most delicate, feathery needles imaginable. ”

“ The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to reach toward the clouds, and its tall, narrow form is familiar in many sections of our country, although the tree was originally imported from Europe. ”