George C. Comstock

“ Newton's law of gravitation.—"Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force whose direction is that of a line joining the two, and whose magnitude is directly as the product of their masses, and inversely as the square of their distance from each other." We know that we ourselves and the things about us are pulled toward the earth by a force (weight) which is called, in the Latin that Newton wrote, gravitas, and the word marks well the true significance of the law of gravitation. ”

“ We know that for some thousands of years the sun has been furnishing light and heat to the earth in practically unvarying amount, and not to the earth alone, but it has been pouring forth these forms of energy in every direction, without apparent regard to either use or economy. Of all the radiant energy given off by the sun, only two parts out of every thousand million fall upon any planet of the solar system, and of this small fraction the earth takes about one tenth for the maintenance of its varied forms of life and action. ”

“ Making due allowance for the difference in compression produced by weight, we may say that in general, so far as density goes, the moon is very like a piece of the earth of equal mass set off by itself alone. ”

“ Consequences of tidal friction upon the earth.—This process of moving the moon away from the earth is a cumulative one, going on century after century, and with reference to it the moon's orbit must be described not as a circle or ellipse, or any other curve which returns into itself, but as a spiral, like the balance spring of a watch, each of whose coils is a little larger than the preceding one, although this excess is, to be sure, very small, because the tides themselves are small and the tidal influence feeble when compared with the whole attraction of the earth for the moon. ”

“ The atmosphere is the chief agent in the propagation of sound, and without it the moon must be wrapped in silence more absolute than can be found upon the surface of the earth. So, too, the absence of an atmosphere shows that there can be no water or other liquid upon the moon, for if so it would immediately evaporate and produce a gaseous envelope which we have seen does not exist. With air and water absent there can be of course no vegetation or life of any kind upon the moon, and we are compelled to regard it as an arid desert, utterly waste. ”

“ In breaking away from this erroneous idea and learning to think of the sky itself as only an atmospheric illusion through which we look to stars at very different distances beyond, it was easy to fall into the opposite error and to think of the stars as being much alike one with another, and, like pebbles on the beach, scattered throughout space with some rough degree of uniformity, so that in every direction there should be found in equal measure stars near at hand and stars far off, each shining with a luster proportioned to its remoteness. ”

“ For the most part these shadows are invisible, but occasionally one of them falls upon a planet or some other body which shines by reflected sunlight, and, cutting off its supply of light, produces the striking phenomenon which we call an eclipse. The satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars are eclipsed whenever they plunge into the shadows cast by their respective planets, and Jupiter himself is partially eclipsed when one of his own satellites passes between him and the sun, and casts upon his broad surface a shadow too small to cover more than a fraction of it. ”

“ Perturbations.—In what precedes we have considered the motion of a planet under the influence of no other force than the sun's attraction, while in fact, as the law of gravitation asserts, every other body in the universe is in some measure attracting it and changing its motion. ”

“ We are here in a dilemma between density on the one hand and the effects of gravity on the other, and the only escape from it lies in the assumption that the interior of Jupiter is tremendously hot, and that this heat expands the substance of the planet in spite of the pressure to which it is subject, making a large planet with a low density, possibly gaseous at the very center, but in its outer part surrounded by a shell of clouds condensed from the gases by radiating their heat into the cold of outer space. ”

“ Newton did not discover a new force in the heavens, but he extended an old and familiar one from a limited terrestrial sphere of action to an unlimited and celestial one, and furnished a precise statement of the way in which the force operates. Whether a body be hot or cold, wet or dry, solid, liquid, or gaseous, is of no account in determining the force which it exerts, since this depends solely upon mass and distance. ”

“ Bessel, who discovered it, did not hesitate to apply the laws of motion, and to affirm that this visible change of the star's motion pointed to the presence of an unseen companion, which produced upon the motions of Sirius and Procyon just such effects as the visible companions produce in the motions of double stars. A new kind of star, dark instead of bright, was added to the astronomer's domain, and its discoverer boldly suggested the possible existence of many more. "That countless stars are visible is clearly no argument against the existence of as many more invisible ones." ”

“ In his theory of tidal friction, Darwin has pointed out that whenever the periodic time in the orbit is more than twice as long as the time required for rotation about the axis, the effect of the tides is to increase the eccentricity of the orbit, and, following this indication, See has urged that with increasing distance between the components of a double star their orbits about the common center of gravity must grow more and more eccentric, so that we have in the shape of such orbits a new index of stellar development; the more eccentric the orbit, the farther advanced are the stars. ”

“ Galileo and Newton extended to the heavens the terrestrial sciences of mathematics and mechanics, but it remained to the nineteenth century to show that the physics and chemistry of the sky are like the physics and chemistry of the earth. ”

“ Precession.—That the earth is isolated in space and has no support upon which to rest, is sufficiently shown by the fact that the stars are visible upon every side of it, and no support can be seen stretching out toward them. We must then consider the earth to be a globe traveling freely about the sun in a circuit which it completes once every year, and rotating once in every twenty-four hours about an axis which remains at all seasons directed very nearly toward the star Polaris. ”

“ The velocity of meteors.—Every meteor, big or little, is subject to the law of gravitation, and before it encounters the earth must be moving in some kind of orbit having the sun at its focus, the particular species of orbit—ellipse, parabola, hyperbola—depending upon the velocity and direction of its motion. Now, the direction in which a meteor is moving can be determined without serious difficulty from observations of its apparent path across the sky made by two or more observers, but the velocity can not be so readily found, since the meteors go too fast for any ordinary process of timing. ”

“ The foot print, the blood stain, the broken glass must be examined and compared, and fashioned into a theory of how they came to be; and as a wrong understanding of these elements is sure to vitiate the theories based upon them, so a false science of the universe as it now is, will surely give a false account of what it has been; while a correct but incomplete knowledge of the present does not wholly bar an understanding of the past, but only puts us in the position of the detective who correctly understands what he sees but fails to take note of other facts which might greatly aid him. ”

“ Within a stone or rock of moderate size these gravitative forces are insignificant, and cohesion is the chief factor in preserving its integrity, but in a large body like the moon, the case is just reversed, cohesion plays a small part and gravitation a large one in holding the body together. We may conclude, therefore, that at a proper distance these forces are capable of breaking up the moon, or any other large body, into fragments of a size such that molecular cohesion instead of gravitation is the chief agent in preserving them from further disintegration. ”

“ From sunset to sunrise there is nothing to compensate the steady outflow of heat, and air and ground grow steadily colder, but with the sunrise there comes an influx of solar heat, feeble at first because it strikes the earth's surface very obliquely, but becoming more and more efficient as the sun rises higher in the sky. But as the air and the ground grow warm during the morning hours they part more and more readily and rapidly with their store of heat, just as a steam pipe or a cup of coffee radiates heat more rapidly when very hot. ”

“ If such is the case, its climate must be very peculiar: one side roasted in a perpetual day, where the direct heating power of the sun's rays, when the planet is at perihelion, is ten times as great as on the moon, and which six weeks later, when the planet is at its farthest from the sun, has fallen off to less than half of this. On the opposite side of the planet there must reign perpetual night and perpetual cold, mitigated by some slight access of warmth from the day side, and perhaps feebly imitating the rapid change of season which takes place on the day side of the planet. ”

“ It is for this reason that science knows nothing and can know nothing of a creation or an end of the universe, but considers only its orderly development within limited periods of time. What kind of a past universe would, under the operation of known laws, develop into the present one, is the question with which we have to deal, and of it we may say with Helmholtz: "From the standpoint of science this is no idle speculation but an inquiry concerning the limitations of its methods and the scope of its known laws." ”

“ If this radiant energy could come unhindered to our eyes every star would appear white, but they are all surrounded by atmospheres—analogous to the chromosphere and reversing layer of the sun—which absorb a portion of their radiant energy and, like the earth's atmosphere, take a heavier toll from the violet than from the red end of the spectrum. The greater the absorption in the star's atmosphere, therefore, the feebler and the ruddier will be its light, and corresponding to this the red stars are as a class fainter than the white ones. ”

“ The first law of motion.—"Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line except in so far as it may be compelled by force to change that state." A gust of wind, a stone, a careless movement of the rider may turn the bicycle to the right or the left, but unless some disturbing force is applied it will go straight ahead, and if all resistance to its motion could be removed it would go always at the speed given it by the last power applied, swerving neither to the one hand nor the other. ”

“ In those parts of the earth near the equator—the torrid zone—there is no such marked change from cold to warm as we experience, because, as the sun never gets more than 23.5° away from the celestial equator, on every day of the year he mounts high in the tropic skies, always coming within 23.5° of the zenith, and usually closer than this, so that there is no such periodic change in the heat supply as is experienced in higher latitudes, and within the tropics the temperature is therefore both higher and more uniform than in our latitude. ”

“ Use of eclipses.—At all times and among all peoples eclipses, and particularly total eclipses of the sun, have been reckoned among the most impressive phenomena of Nature. In early times and among uncultivated people they were usually regarded with apprehension, often amounting to a terror and frenzy, which civilized travelers have not scrupled to use for their own purposes with the aid of the eclipse predictions contained in their almanacs, threatening at the proper time to destroy the sun or moon, and pointing to the advancing eclipse as proof that their threats were not vain. ”

“ As a curiosity of mathematical analysis we may note that a spherical cloud of meteors, or dust particles weighing a gramme each, and placed at the earth's distance from the sun, will be broken up and dissipated by the sun's tidal action if the average distance between the particles exceeds two yards. Now, the earth is far more dense than such a cloud, whose extreme tenuity, however, suggests what we have already learned of the small density of comets, and prepares us in their case for an outflow of particles at both ends of the diameter directed toward the sun. ”

“ The Milky Way is just such a cloud of faint stars, and the student who can obtain access to a small telescope, or even an opera glass, should not fail to turn it toward the Milky Way and see for himself how that vague stream of light breaks up into shining points, each an independent star. These faint stars, which are found in every part of the sky as well as in the Milky Way, are usually called telescopic, in recognition of the fact that they can be seen only in the telescope, while the other brighter ones are known as lucid stars. ”

“ The Milky Way itself is commonly thought to be a ring, or series of rings, like the coils of the great spiral nebula in Andromeda, and separated from us by a space far greater than the thickness of the ring itself. ”

“ When by laboratory experiments we have learned the particular set of lines corresponding to iron, we may treat the presence of these lines in another spectrum as proof that iron is present in the source from which the light came, whether that source be a white-hot poker in the next room or a star immeasurably distant. ”

“ At the surface of the third satellite the force of gravity is but little less than on the moon, although the moon's density is nearly twice as great as that of III, and there can be no question here of accounting for the low density through expansion by great heat, as in the case of the sun and Jupiter. It has been surmised that these satellites are not solid bodies, like the earth and moon, but only shoals of rock and stone, loosely piled together and kept from packing into a solid mass by the action of Jupiter in raising tides within them. ”

“ Neptune and Uranus, at the outskirts of the solar system, are so remote from us and so feebly illumined by the sun that any detailed study of them can go but little beyond determining the numbers which represent their size, mass, density, the character of their orbits, etc. The asteroids are so small that in the telescope they look like mere points of light, absolutely indistinguishable in appearance from the fainter stars. Mercury, although closer at hand and presenting a disk of considerable size, always stands so near the sun that its observation is difficult on this account. ”

“ On the earth we measure the heights of mountains above sea level, while on the moon there is no sea, and our 6,600 feet is simply the height of the mountain top above the level of that particular point in the terminator, from which we measure its distance. So too it is evident from the appearance of things, that the sunlight, instead of just touching the top of the particular mountain whose height we have measured, really extends some little distance down from its summit, and the 6,600 feet is therefore the elevation of the lowest point on the mountains to which the sunlight reaches. ”