Antarctic Circle

“ Antarctic air appears to be colder at the surface in all seasons, and at all levels in fall and winter, than ARCTIC AIR.
Antarctic Circle. . The parallel of latitude at about 66° 33'S, marking the northern limit of the south Frigid Zone. This latitude is the complement of the sun’s greatest southerly declination, and marks the approximate northern limit at which the sun becomes circumpolar. The actual limit is extended somewhat by the combined effect of refraction, semidiameter of the sun, parallax, and the height of the observer’s eye above the surface of the earth. ”

“ Here we stayed until November 22, when we directed our course towards the Antarctic circle, meeting on December 8 with a gale of such fury that we could carry no sails, and were driven by this means to eastward of our intended course, not the least hope remaining of our reaching Cape Circumcision.
We now encountered in 51o 50' S. latitude and 21o 3' E. longitude some ice islands. The dismal scene, a view to which we were unaccustomed, was varied as well by birds of the petrel kind as by several whales which made their appearance among the ice, and afforded us some idea of a southern Greenland. ”

“ The Antarctic regions are far more desolate and barren than the Arctic. Here we have no energetic hunters, like the Esquimaux, chasing the seal or the walrus; no herdsmen following, like the Samoïedes or the Lapps, their reindeer to the brink of the icy ocean; but all is one dreary, uninhabitable waste. While within the Arctic Circle the musk-ox enjoys an abundance of food, and the lemming is still found thriving on the bleakest islands, not a single land quadruped exists beyond 56° of southern latitude. ”

“ This difference becomes especially recognisable below the 50th degree of south latitude; so that, after passing the Antarctic Circle, the ice opposes the voyager's course with nearly insurmountable obstacles; while, in the northern hemisphere, the whaler frequently penetrates to Spitzbergen, situated much nearer to the Pole than to the Polar Circle. This is a general fact; we confine ourselves to putting it forward. ”

“ If, then, the navigator at Cape in South America draws a thread tightly on a terrestrial globe between that point and, say, the south-east cape of Tasmania, the line it describes will be the arc of a Great Circle, and consequently the shortest distance between the two places. But when he comes to lay down the track which that thread has described upon his Mercator chart he finds that, instead of steering almost a straight course between the two places, he must describe a huge curve, with its vertex or highest southerly point well within the Antarctic circle. ”

“ Now it is consequently manifest that this part of the earth is as fertile and habitable as the northern hemisphere, for the south has of necessity the same distribution of zones as the north; that is to say, half of the torrid zone from the equinoctial line to the tropic of Capricorn, then the temperate zone from that to the Antarctic circle, and then that which lies between the Antarctic circle and the Antarctic pole ”

“ I have no doubt that in the summer season it might be penetrated to a great distance, and it is very probable that eventually the south magnetic pole will be attained by persevering to the S.W. through this vast tract of ocean, which separates Victoria Land from the Balleny and other islands or lands discovered near the antarctic circle by Biscoe, Balleny, Wilkes, and D'Urville. We saw a great many whales whenever we came near the pack edge, chiefly of a very large size ”

“ The exploration of the antarctic circle as far as the 73° of south latitude, and the remarkable discovery that the ice-bound regions, both of the Arctic and Antarctic, were, at a former period of the world's history, covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and that plants and animals then existed there in great abundance, which are found now only in the tropics, or in the more southern parts of the temperate zone. ”

“ Fact replaced the fiction and surmise of former times, and maps appeared showing a large blank area at the southern extremity of the earth, where speculative cartographers had affirmed the existence of habitable land extending far towards the Equator. Cook's voyage made it clear that if there were any considerable mass of Antarctic land, it must indubitably lie within the Antarctic Circle, and be subjected to such stringent climatic conditions as to render it an unlikely habitation for man. ”

“ At noon we found ourselves in latitude 69 degrees 10’ S, longitude 42 degrees 20’ W, having crossed the Antarctic circle. Very little ice was to be seen to the southward, although large fields of it lay behind us. This day we rigged some sounding gear, using a large iron pot capable of holding twenty gallons, and a line of two hundred fathoms. We found the current setting to the north, about a quarter of a mile per hour. The temperature of the air was now about thirty-three. Here we found the variation to be 14 degrees 28’ easterly, per azimuth. ”

“ Climate.—The Australian continent, extending over 28° of latitude, might be expected to show a considerable diversity of climate. In reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic variations than the other great continents, owing to its distance (28°) from the Antarctic circle and (11°) from the equator. There is, besides, a powerful determining cause in the uniform character and undivided extent of its dry interior. The plains and steppes already described lie either within or close to the tropics. ”

“ Many of the most important and interesting problems regarding the physics of Arctic seas circle round the influence of the Gulf Stream.
The intermediate warm layer of water is not peculiar to the Arctic Regions. "The common feature of Antarctic water found by all expeditions," says Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, "is the thick warm layer lying between a cold layer at the surface and another cold layer at the bottom."
The intermediate warm layer in glacial seas was found by the Challenger in her Antarctic cruise. ”

“ A narrow canal separated it from a considerable stretch of land, perhaps a continent, for we could not see its limits. The existence of this land seemed to give some color to Maury's hypothesis. The ingenious American has remarked that between the south pole and the sixtieth parallel, the sea is covered with floating ice of enormous size, which is never met with in the North Atlantic. From this fact he has drawn the conclusion that the antarctic circle incloses considerable continents, as icebergs cannot form in open sea, but only on the coasts. ”

“ The work of the Challenger, Valdivia, Gauss and Scotia in the South Atlantic and South Indian Oceans has given us a clue to the possible connections between Africa, South America and Antarctica, and now it is of great interest and importance to get more soundings to the south of Australia and New Zealand, to show more exactly what the conformation of the floor of the ocean is in those longitudes. That is one of the most important investigations for future Antarctic exploring ships to carry out. ”

“ As regards land work in the Antarctic Regions, this can be undertaken more satisfactorily after we have obtained a more definite idea of the confines of the Great Southern Ocean around Antarctica. At present there is too much hazy conjecture, and we find what one believes to be part of Antarctica itself another declares to be an island. But the land work has begun, and to the keen landsman there is no reason why it should not be going ahead. ”

“ There in the White South, beyond the Antarctic Convergence that runs across three oceans to mark the physical boundary of Antarctica, is the Bulgarian base St. Kliment Ohridski on Livingston Island in the Antarctic Peninsula region of Western Antarctica.
People still know little about that continent. It is the highest, driest and coldest place on earth, a land of penguins, seals, glaciers and icebergs, stretching over a vast area of 14 million square kilometres around the South Pole. A continent where few people have had the chance to step on and get touched by its beauty. ”

“ On the 11th of January, 1841, in latitude about 71° S., and longitude 171° E., the Antarctic Continent was first seen, the general outline of which at once indicated its volcanic character; rising steeply from the ocean in a stupendous mountain range, peak above peak, enveloped in perpetual snow, and clustered together in countless groups resembling a vast mass of crystallisation, which, as the sun's rays were reflected on it, exhibited a scene of such equalled magnificence and splendour as would baffle all power of language to portray or give the faintest conception of. ”

“ They rise almost without a break to a height of thirteen thousand feet. Between us and them is the Barrier to the south, and the sea to the north. Unless a blizzard is impending or blowing, they are clearly visible, a gigantic wall of snow and ice and rock, which bounds our view to the west, constantly varied by the ever-changing colour of the Antarctic. Beyond is the plateau. ”

“ But the most remarkable discovery made in Antarctica was that of Sir J. C. Ross, who had been sent by the Admiralty in 1840 to identify the South Magnetic Pole, as we have seen he had discovered that of the north. With the two ships Erebus and Terror he discovered Victoria Land and the two active volcanoes named after his ships, which he found pouring forth flaming lava amidst the snow. In January, 1842, he reached farthest south, 78°. After the return of the Ross expedition little was attempted toward the exploration of the Antarctic regions for more than half a century. ”

“ With some reservation it may be affirmed that the trade-winds and their modifications and counter-currents are the cause of all movements in the stratum of the ocean above the neutral layer. All the vast mass of water, often upward of two thousand fathoms in thickness below the neutral band, is moving slowly to the northward; in fact, the depths of the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean, are occupied by tongues of the Antarctic Sea, preserving in the main its characteristic temperature. ”

“ This land area may be composed of two main masses, or of one continent and a great archipelago, but it can no longer be doubted that the whole is of continental character as regards its rocks, and that it is permanently massed into one surface with ice and snow, which in some parts at least unites lands separated by hundreds of miles of sea But all round the land-mass there is a ring of deep ocean cutting off the Antarctic region from all other land of the earth and setting it apart as a region by itself, more unlike the rest of the world than any continent or island. ”

“ The Continent itself appears to have been sighted for the first time in the year 1820, but no human being actually set foot on it until 1895. The Belgian expedition under de Gerlache was the first to experience the Antarctic winter, spending the year 1898 drifting helplessly, frozen in the pack-ice, to the southward of America. In the following year a British expedition under Borchgrevinck, wintering at Cape Adare, passed a year upon the Antarctic mainland. ”

“ The skirts of the Antarctic Continent had proved to be rich in minerals wherever the rocks could find a place to penetrate through the gigantic burden of ice, and the principal nations had quarreled over the possession or control of these protruding bits of wealth-crammed strata. But behind the bordering cliffs of ice, rising in places a thousand feet above the level of the sea, and towering farther inland so high that this region was, in mean elevation, the loftiest on the planet, nothing but ice could be seen. ”

“ A better fate, I trust, awaits the treasures that the hoped-for Expedition will bring back, for so prolific is the ocean that the naturalist need never be idle, no, not even for one of the twenty-four hours of daylight during a whole Antarctic summer, and I look to the results of a comparison of the oceanic life of the Arctic and Antarctic regions as the heralding of an epoch in the history of biology. ”

“ Should there be sufficient funds, it would be well to have a second ship for the express purpose of carrying an extra supply of stores and a house, rather than lumber up the oceanographical ship with all this material. If the lie of the land be found to be as expected, a serious attempt would be made to cross the Antarctic Continent and to emerge somewhere along the coast of the Ross Sea, the journey being made more or less along the meridian of Greenwich on the Atlantic side, and continuing on about the 180th meridian on the Pacific side. ”

“ Either they may be large pieces broken away from the Great Ice Barrier which hems in the Southern Continent, or they may have detached themselves from some great glaciers, which glaciers “calve” periodically, on account of their resistless forward movement down the ravines they create towards the sea. Most Antarctic bergs are flat-topped, lacking those fantastic pinnacles that are usually associated with bergs; but many of them are enormous masses, several square miles in extent and weighing millions of tons. Not that the bigger fellows are the more picturesque, they are only awe-inspiring. ”

“ There are, in the line of the Arctic current, on the American coast, great sand banks, and off the coast of Norway, sand constitutes a considerable part of the bottom material. Soundings and dredgings off Great Britain, and also off the American coast, have shown that fragments of stone referable to Arctic lands are abundantly strewn over the bottom, along certain lines, and the Antarctic continent, otherwise almost unknown, makes its presence felt to the dredge by the abundant masses of crystalline rock drifted far from it to the north. ”