Computer program

“ Modern, high-speed computers, such as the 1401, are marvelous electronic instruments, but they represent only portions of data processing systems. Well-tested programming languages for communication with computers must accompany the systems. It is through these languages that the computer itself is used to perform many of the tedious functions that the programmer would otherwise have to perform. A few minutes of computer time in translating the program can be equal to many, many hours of staff time in writing instructions coded in the language of the computer. ”

“ Using the tidy format makes this distinction clearer. One axiom about the structure of data and code holds that one should “write code for humans, write data for computers” [ [23] ] . When data can be easily imported and manipulated using familiar software (whether via a scripting language, a spreadsheet, or any other computer program that can import these common files) , data becomes easier to re-use. Furthermore, having the source code for the software doing the analysis available provides provenance for how the data is processed and analyzed. ”

“ If you've never programmed a computer, you should. There's nothing like it in the whole world. When you program a computer, it does exactly what you tell it to do. It's like designing a machine -- any machine, like a car, like a faucet, like a gas-hinge for a door -- using math and instructions. It's awesome in the truest sense: it can fill you with awe. ”

“ Given the exciting prospects for computer-based advanced automation in future missions, a program for more efficient, effective, and timely software development, management, and maintanance is mandatory. Principal software requirements are in the areas of programming languages, the software development environment, software validation, algorithm design, fault tolerance, and error recovery. Automatic programming should also be considered as a vehicle for improving the quality of software and the process of developing it. Data management. ”

“ Making up the program for the teaching machine is a difficult task and requires the services of technical expert, psychologist, and programmer. An English-like language is used in preparing a CLASS program for the computer. Put on magnetic tape, the program goes into the memory of the computer and is called out by proper responses from the student as he progresses through the lesson. ”

“ The records for the program analysis function are maintained by computer. Before the days of the electronic and digital computers, the scope of the information for each project was necessarily quite limited in comparison with the current data that is maintained. However, because of the sophistication and flexibility of modern computers, a vast amount of data is collected, stored in the computer and used on a day-to-day basis to monitor the progress of the program and insure compliance with all legal and administrative requirements. ”

“ Unless an appropriate set of standard input-output devices is provided, the computer will not be used efficiently. A balanced system with a small computer is likely to prove much more useful than an unbalanced system with a medium-sized computer. What is necessary will, of course, depend upon the uses of the system. For example, if a large amount of program development is anticipated, the inclusion of a line printer should certainly be considered, because universal experience has shown that line printers are immensely valuable during program development ”

“ For the purposes of subsection (2) (c) , a person uses a program if the function he causes the computer to perform—
(a) causes the program to be executed; or (b) is itself a function of the program. (4) For the purposes of subsection (2) (d) , the form in which any program or data is output (and in particular whether or not it represents a form in which, in the case of a program, it is capable of being executed or, in the case of data, it is capable of being processed by a computer) is immaterial. ”

“ Programmers are likely to be men—or women, for there is no sex barrier in this new profession—who revel in symbolic logic and heuristic or “hunch” reasoning. Without a program, the computer is an impressively elaborate and frighteningly expensive contraption which cannot tell one number from another. The day may come when the mathematician can say to the machine, “Prove Fermat’s last theorem for me, please,” or the engineer simply wish aloud for a ceramic material that melts at 15,000° C. and weighs slightly less than Styrofoam. ”

“ Not all hardware and software are compatible. In fact, hundreds of producers of computer equipment and computer programs are in the market, and there are few across-the-board standards. So it's important to get hardware and software that are compatible.
Software, or the computer programs themselves, are not like records that can be played on any record player. They have to be compatible with the hardware in terms of the programing language used, operating system, size, format, and other factors. ”

“ Duties of programmers Every person responsible for the design of a computer program intended to implement Meek’s method of counting votes must take all reasonable steps to ensure that the program produces outcomes that are consistent with Algorithm 123 in the form described in the article and any authorised modifications. ”

“ The major difference is that with full automation, you do not have to look at the screen while the script is working. You can do other things. Sometimes, you may not even be present when the job is being done. On a typical morning, I go directly from bed to my office to switch my communications computer on. While I visit the bathroom, my communications program calls three online services, retrieve and send information. When the script has disconnected from the first service, which is my bulletin board, it analyzes the received data. ”

“ Where do you find good software? Some farmers and ranchers write their own programs or pay a programmer to write a custom program. But most get existing programs either from State Extension sources or from commercial outlets.
Many operations farmers need to perform on a computer can be done by using generalized software packages readily available through commercial sources. ”

“ A corollary benefit is the speed inherent in the computer which makes it possible to test a new policy or manufacturing program in hours 200right in the computer, rather than waiting for months or years of actual implementation and possible failure. For these reasons another expert has predicted that most businesses will be using computer simulations of their organizations by 1966. Regardless of the timetable, it is clear that the computer has jumped into business with both its binary digits and will become an increasingly powerful factor. ”

“ On-line data-acquisition computer systems are made in a wide range of types and sizes. In all cases at least one electronic computer is involved—a stored-program machine—because wired-program devices such as pulse-height analyzers are not considered to be computers. ”

“ In ordering a new computer powerful enough to handle most of the nuclear physics laboratory's data analysis and theoretical computing tasks, cost ruled out the acquisition of a pair of program-compatible computers. ”

“ Make me a computer that doesn't run every program, just a program that does this specialized task, like streaming audio, or routing packets, or playing Xbox games, and make sure it doesn't run programs that I haven't authorized that might undermine our profits". ”

“ Lotus 1-2-3, a combination of a spreadsheet, a graphics program, and several others, is far too complex for an 8-bit machine with 64K RAM. Many 16-bit programs require 192K or more just to load the program before you even put in your reports or spreadsheets.
3. You may want the most sophisticated software to thwart computer crooks. That could be particularly true in a large company where many people can poke through a computer’s memory either in person or via other machines connected by phone or other wires. ”

“ Users at technologically sophisticated sites want even more sophisticated hardware, so that they can perform even more sophisticated tasks with the materials in AM. But once they acquire a newer piece of hardware, they must learn how to use that also; at an unsophisticated site it takes an extremely long time simply to become accustomed to the computer, not to mention the program offered with the computer. ”

“ Algorithm - A procedure for accomplishing a given result by proceeding on a logical step-by-step basis. Computer programs and N/C routines for machine tools are developed this way.
Analog - Computers of this type are designed to respond and control continuous process operations such as flows, temperatures, or other infinitely variable-type operations. Digital computers process only discrete digital data.
Automatic - Functioning in a predefined manner with a minimum of reprogrammability; possesses only limited process information closure. ”

“ In the general area of communication between man and machine, a few tasks are already well handled by available languages. For example, in the area of numerical computations the present formal languages, while not perfect, are highly serviceable. When one considers the introduction of sophisticated computer systems into environments where it is necessary for them to communicate frequently, competently, and rapidly with people who are not specialists in computer programming, then the need for improvement in man machine communication capability quickly becomes apparent. ”

“ Semantically, one rich source of jargon constructions is the hackish tendency to anthropomorphize hardware and software. English purists and academic computer scientists frequently look down on others for anthropomorphizing hardware and software, considering this sort of behavior to be characteristic of naive misunderstanding. But most hackers anthropomorphize freely, frequently describing program behavior in terms of wants and desires. ”

“ Nowadays, there are version control systems to track the evolution of algorithms and computer programs or changes in scripts. Bitbucket, Git, Subversion, and Mercurial are among the most widely used version-control systems. You should use a standardized name system to identify changes. If you have a paper lab notebook, you should record the name and location of the scripts. Those using electronic lab notebooks can add links to each version of their scripts or programs. ”

“ Because of the limited memory space of the TX-0 (a handicap that extended to all computers of that era) , hackers came to deeply appreciate innovative techniques which allowed programs to do complicated tasks with very few instructions. The shorter a program was, the more space you had left for other programs, and the faster a program ran. Sometimes when you didn't need speed or space much, and you weren't thinking about art and beauty, you'd hack together an ugly program, attacking the problem with "brute force" methods. ”

“ The hardware would probably cost over $400,000 exclusive of engineering, and to this must be added a large expense for programming, even if the manufacturer supplies a satisfactory shared-time monitor plus all the usual software. Three men would be needed to assemble, maintain, and operate the system: an engineer, technician-programmer, and a full-time programmer, or some equivalent combination, assuming use of the system in a large laboratory with an active and continually developing research program. ”

“ Thus, what is desired is drastically to increase the rate of interaction between the programmer and the computer without large economic loss and also to make each interaction more meaningful by extensive and complex system programming to assist in the man-computer communication. ”

“ However, significant advances in computer hardware and software have been made since that time. In particular, dramatic advances in large-scale integrated circuitry and microprocessor technology have permitted fabrication of mini-computers, micro-computers, and other special purpose devices, which are capable of duplicating many of the data-manipulative capabilities which were previously available only at centralized locations housing large scale general-purpose computers. ”

“ Don't underestimate the amount of time and effort it will require to collect data, make sure it's accurate, enter the data, and run the analyses.
It's important to consider how user-friendly the computer is, and how much the computer's software will do to guide you through the analysis.
A computer will do calculations very quickly, perhaps saving hours of laborious figuring. A computer will store information from one time period to the next, and recalculate alternatives quickly. By making the information available, it will help you identify strong and weak points in your operation. ”

“ Many embedded computer applications require software that will continue to operate in the presence of faults.... The applications may require the monitoring of sensors, control of equipment displays or operator input processing. They must interface to special peripheral equipment.... Software must sometimes be able to respond at periodic (real time) intervals, to service interrupts within limited times, and to predict computation times.... In many applications..it is necessary to access, manipulate and display large quantities of data. ”

“ Data bases, sometimes. “But word processors definitely take the cake.
“You’ve got to deal a lot with special features on printers, like boldfacing and underlining and whether the software will let them work right,” Park says. He suggests the obvious—that before buying new software, you find out how it will run with your printer and computer. Of course, as stated earlier, you’ll ideally select your hardware after you’ve chosen your general range of software. Park says most people don’t fully “realize the implications” of the software they’re ordering “because they haven’t thought of it yet.” ”