Hive cell

“ It is safest not to cut the cells out until they are within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of their full maturity. In case a nucleus or colony has not been queenless long enough to make it ready to accept a queen cell, the latter may be placed in a cell protector made of wire cloth or of a spiral coil of wire and then inserted between the central combs of the hive. The lower end only of the protector is open, so that the upper portion of the cell—the part easily bitten open by the workers—is wholly covered. ”

“ Some observers affirm, that the workers attend to the eggs before the worms are hatched; and it is certain that, at whatever time a hive is examined, we always see some workers with the head and thorax inserted into cells containing eggs, and remaining motionless several minutes in this position. It is impossible to discover what they do, for the interior of the cell is concealed by their bodies ”

“ The frames of the hive from which the comb has been taken, should be, one by one, placed so as to fill in the vacancy, leaving the empty frame nearest the side. When a hive has been in use many years, the combs become very black, and every bee that is bred in a cell leaves a film behind. It may be understood how in this way the cells become contracted, so that the bees that are bred in them are correspondingly reduced in size. ”

“ When the denizens of a hive are about to produce another queen, one or more royal cells are formed; these are much larger than the ordinary worker-cells, and of a quite different form. In this cell is placed an egg, not differing in any respect from the egg that, if placed in an ordinary cell, produces a worker; when the egg has produced a larva this is tended with great care and fed throughout its life with royal jelly. ”

“ The hive-bee, whose thickly peopled home affords but a limited space, constructs its comb of closely packed hexagonal cells, an arrangement which gives the greatest room for each cell in a circumscribed area. ”

“ This is because there are always in the sides of these narrow tubes points enough to keep it in, and that besides this the last layer of honey is always of greater consistency than the liquid in the interior, and upon which it forms a sort of crust.
When the harvest has been abundant, many combs of closed cells may be found in each hive, perfect storehouses of abundance, furnished for the wants of the bad season. When the construction of the cells goes on well—often on the day after the bees have installed themselves in their hive—the queen goes out to meet the males. ”

“ When the workers penetrate the cells, and remain fifteen or twenty minutes motionless, I have reason to believe, it is only to repose from their labours. My observations on the subject seem correct. You know, Sir, that a kind of irregular shaped cells, are frequently constructed on the panes of the hive. These, being glass on one side, are exceedingly convenient to the observer, since all that passes within is exposed. I have often seen bees enter these cells when nothing could attract them. The cells contained neither eggs nor honey, nor did they need further completion. ”

“ Later on he pointed out that when the infecting germinal tube of a fungus enters a plant-cell, two phenomena must be taken into account, the penetration of the cell-walls and tissues, and the attraction which causes the tips of the growing hypha to face and penetrate these obstacles, instead of gliding over them in the lines of apparent least resistance. The further development of these two factors shows that in the successful attack of a parasitic plant on its victim or host these fungi can excrete cellulose-dissolving enzymes, and that they have the power of destroying lignine. ”

“ A characteristic feature of the fungal vegetative plant-body (mycelium) is its formation from independent coenocytic tubes or cell-threads. These branch, and may be packed or interwoven to form a very solid structure; but each grows in length independently of the others and retains its own individuality, though its growth in those types with a definite external form is of course correlated with that of its neighbours and is subject to the laws governing the general form of the body. Such an independent coenocytic branch or cell-thread is called a hypha. ”

“ HOW TO FEED UNITED SWARMS.
There is always honey in hives that are emptied to be united. If there are six pounds more or less, I lay aside the combs that are full, after having separated those that are but half filled, and of which the cells are not hermetically sealed by the little thin chip of transparent white wax which invariably covers those cells that are full of honey. Twelve or fourteen days after the union, when the cold forces the bees to congregate themselves in their hives, I give the hive that contains the double population a few puffs of tobacco-smoke ”

“ With the described rapidity of the production of the cells, although the majority are store cells and not brood cells, conjunctively with her prolific laying, the population of the hive rapidly increases, which, added to the large original colony, will enable it in a propitious year to throw off a swarm of its own ”

“ Then the primary cell resolves itself into a cluster of peculiar secondary cells, each consisting of an elongated body containing an orange-coloured endochrome and a pair of long flagella, as seen in the antherozoids of the higher cryptogams. As the sperm-cells approach maturity the clusters may be seen to move within them; the bundles then separate and show an independent active movement while still within the cavity of the primary cell, and finally escape through a rupture in the cell-wall, rapidly diffusing themselves as they pass through the cavity. ”

“ It is that the number of cells made is always proportioned to that of the different bees to be produced. Another curious fact is that when several queen bees are produced they are all killed but one. If more than a single female were allowed to remain in the hive, a greater number of eggs would be laid than the working bees would be able to supply with cells. ”

“ The outermost cells that spring from the top of the hive or abut against its sides are not hexagonal, but pentagonal, so as to gain in strength, being attached with one base instead of two sides. In autumn bees lengthen their existing honey cells if these are insufficient, but in the ensuing spring they again shorten them in order to get greater roadway between the combs. When the full combs have become too heavy, they strengthen the walls of the uppermost or bearing cells by thickening them with wax and propolis. ”

“ If the vessel is permitted to become thoroughly dry, and then again has water poured 404 into it, motile cells reappear; from which circumstance it is probable that these represent the resting spores of the plant. When in the condition of greatest activity its division into eight is perfected during the night, and early in the morning light the young cells escape and pass through similar changes. It is calculated that in eight days, under favourable circumstances, 16,777,216 families may be formed from one resting-cell of Stephanosphæra. ”

“ Perhaps the most remarkable class of stimulations, however, is that due to the presence of the entire protoplasmic body of one organism in the cell of another, each living its own life for the time being, but the protoplasm of the host cell showing clearly, by its abnormal behaviour, that the presence of the foreign protoplasm is affecting its physiology. A simple example is afforded by Zopfs' Pleotrachelus, the amoeboid protoplasmic body of which lives in the hypha of Pilobolus, causing it to swell up like an inflated bladder, in which the parasite then forms its sporangia. ”

“ The queen then exercises a personal control over each egg as she deposits it, but, unless interfered with by irregular circumstances, she adapts her will to the cells and chooses the cells according to the requirements of the hive. But when both drones and workers are in requisition she lays her eggs in each class of cells just as she comes to them, as to which fact the Baron gives abundant evidence, having in one instance observed a queen make no fewer than five changes in a day from worker to drone cells or vice versa without any intermission. ”

“ And so besides seeing that the honey and pollen are in such and such combs and cells and the young bees in others, some of them in open and some [Pg 216] in closed cells, and perhaps a few other things, one doesn't learn much by peering into a hive through a mass of smoke-dazed bees while dodging a few extra-lively and energetic ones! ”

“ The body cell corresponds to the central cell of an antheridium; it increases in size more than double, and its nucleus is enlarged in the same proportion. Hereupon this central cell undergoes commonly a cross or oblique division, by means of which two generative cells are created. The stalk cell of the antheridium is divided apparently only under certain conditions. Then the stalk cell and the first prothallial cell lose their independence, and the liberated generative cell passes into the pollen tube. ”

“ The phagocytes, or leucocytes, the cells that institute the process of histolysis in the metamorphosis of Muscidae, are a form of blood cell; though these cells are amoeboid some writers derive them from the fat-body. The cells in the blood have no doubt generally an intimate relation with the fat-body, but very little accurate information has been obtained as to these important physiological points, though Graber has inaugurated their study. [60]
Organs of Sex.
The continuation of the species is effected in Insects by means of two sexes, each endowed with special reproductive organs. ”

“ When a queen bee ceases to animate the hive, the bees are conscious of her loss; after searching for her through the hive, for a day or more, they examine the royal cells, which are of a peculiar construction and reversed in position, hanging vertically, with the mouth underneath. If no eggs or larvae are to be found in these cells, they then enlarge several of those cells, which are appropriated to the eggs of neuters, and in which queen eggs have been deposited. ”

“ Nearly {279}always the containing cells, often called gametes, are unlike: the sperm-cell being the male product, and the germ-cell the female. But among some Protozoa and many of the lower Algæ and Fungi, the uniting cells show no differentiation. Sexuality is only nascent.
There are very many modes and modifications of modes in which these cells are produced; very many modes and modifications of modes by which they are brought into contact; and very many modes and modifications of modes by which the resulting fertilized germs have secured to them the fit conditions for their development. ”

“ The young bees will many of them take to the upper hive—if not they must be enticed into it by food—and when there are sufficient of them, a brood comb with adhering bees must be inserted and the connection closed. After a few days this nucleus hive may be removed, a few steps at a time, and another, if desired, take its place and be raised in - 247 - the same way. Queen-rearing operations must be confined to warm weather and when drones are abundant.
Royal cells are often built so close together that it is difficult to remove one without injuring another. ”

“ If we broaden somewhat the definition of rejuvenescence and free-cell formation, and do not call the mother-cells of spores of mosses, higher cryptogams, and also the mother-cells of pollen-grains, reproductive cells, which strictly speaking they are not, but only producers of the spores or pollen-grains, then we may say that cell-division is confined to vegetative processes, rejuvenescence and free-cell formation are confined to reproductive processes. ”

“ Commencing at the vaulted roof of the hive, they begin the construction of their cells, and, just as we do in the manufacture of a web, they construct their cells from top to bottom, taking care to leave two passages around each compartment, for the entrance of some and the exit of others. ”

“ These bags or bladders are hung round the sides of the hive, and appear about half full; the quantity being probably just as great as the strength of the wax will bear without tearing. Those near the bottom, being better supported, are more filled than the upper ones. In the centre of the lower part of the hive we observed an irregularly-shaped mass of comb, furnished with cells like those of our bees, all containing young ones in such an advanced state, that, when we broke the comb, and let them out, they flew merrily away. ”

“ It is a certain fact, that the cells destined for the reception of eggs are always situated in the lower part of the hive, which is never disturbed. According to Gelieu's plan, it is only the storey above the hive that is taken, until after the brood-comb has furnished a swarm, and the swarm has taken flight. ”

“ Conjoined herewith is the imperative need for the construction of cells for every purpose of the hive, namely, for the storing of the propolis, and that of the pollen, as also the collected honey, as well as for the reception of the young brood, for the mature queen is waiting impatiently to deposit her eggs. ”

“ In a few plants, such as most Fungi, the cell-partitions are {38}in abeyance for the most part, and there is formed an apocyte with a continuous investment, sometimes, however, chambered at intervals by partitions between multinucleate units of protoplasm. We started with a purely physiological consideration, and we have now arrived at a morphological distinction, very valid among higher organisms.
Higher Plants consist of cells for the most part each isolated in its own cell-cavity, save for the few slender threads of communication. ”