Mass-energy equivalence

“ At the planet's surface, the total energy of an infinitesimally small portion of the gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This amount of energy is, however, all that is available for transformation against gravitation in the ascent. But at the same time, the gravitative force on the particle, that force which resists its upward movement, is proportionately small corresponding to the small mass, so that the particle will in reality require to rise to the same altitude of 31 miles in order to completely transform its energy and attain absolute zero of temperature. ”

“ Before the reaction occurs, the energy-to-be-released can be said to only "potentially" exist, although more accurately it can be said that the reaction simply converts some mass into some energy, that energy and mass are different forms of a larger concept, often referred to as "mass/energy." ”

“ When the system loses energy it also loses mass. The loss of mass is very small compared to the loss of energy; it is obtained by dividing the loss of energy by half the square of the velocity of light, which is enormous. When the system has arranged itself in a shape in which its energy is diminished, it can only go back to its former shape if the lost energy is supplied from outside. Therefore the shapes involving least intrinsic energy are the most stable. This is what we must suppose to happen when four hydrogen nuclei and two electrons come together to make a helium nucleus. ”

“ When hydrogen undergoes fusion and becomes helium, only 0.7% of the original mass of the hydrogen is converted to energy. Is it possible to take a quantity of mass and convert all of it, every bit, to energy? Surely that would be the ultimate energy source. Mass for mass, that would deliver 140 times as much energy as hydrogen fusion would; it would be as far beyond hydrogen fusion as hydrogen fusion is beyond uranium fission. ”

“ But the question now arises, as to how this continuous transformation of the axial energy can be consistent with that condition of uniformity of rotation of the planet which was originally assumed. If the total energy of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can receive no increment of energy from any external source, it is clear that the axial energy transformed must, by some process, be continuously returned to its original form. ”

“ Taking a superficial view of the operation, it might be inferred that, as the planets approach one another, energy of motion (or energy of position) is transmitted from one to the other, causing one to retard and the other to accelerate its movement, but a real knowledge of the energy conditions shows that the phenomenon is rather one of a simple restoration of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of the intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. Each planet is, in the truest sense, a separate mass in space. ”

“ The gallon of gasoline has a mass of 2800 grams and combines with about 10,000 grams of oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, yielding 1.35 million billion ergs. That’s a lot of energy and it will drive an automobile for some 25 to 30 kilometers. But by Einstein’s equation all that energy is equivalent to only a little over a millionth of a gram. You start with 12,800 grams of reacting materials and you end with 12,800 grams minus a millionth of a gram or so that was given off as energy. ”

“ Energy is, in fact, the working spirit of the whole cosmical scheme. It is the influence linking every operation of the system to the original transformations at the central axis, so that all may be combined into one complete and consistent whole. It is to be noted, however, that although they have a common origin the orbital energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct from its energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable therewith. The transformation of the one form of energy in no way affects the totality of the other. ”

“ Their existence is essential to the process. But these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation of that energy by virtue of which the mass tends to maintain its coherent form. They are the symbol of that energy which might be termed the cohesion energy of the mass—they are, [Pg 47] in fact, the symbol of the incepting energy influence of the transformation. This incepting energy influence of cohesion is one which holds sway throughout all solid material. It is, therefore, found in action in every movement involving the internal displacement or distortion of matter. ”

“ Now, since the masses thus moving are assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the spherical system, the source of the energy which is thus alternately supplied to and returned by them is the original energy of motion of the system; this original energy being assumed strictly limited in amount, the increase of the energy of each mass as it moves towards the equator will, therefore, be productive of a retardative effect on the revolution of the system as a whole. ”

“ Conceive, then, man as a mass urged on by a force. Though this movement is not of a translatory character, implying change of place, yet the general laws of mechanical movement are applicable to it, and the energy associated with this mass can be measured, in accordance with well-known principles, by half the product of the mass with the square of a certain velocity. So, for instance, a cannon-ball which is at rest possesses a certain amount of energy in the form of heat, which we measure in a similar way. ”

“ However that may be, it is easily to be understood that such a mass as that we are considering must be radiating with tremendous energy; for a time probably the heat which it receives by the collisions and condensation of the outer members of the parent swarm may be as great as the heat which it radiates, and under these conditions the average temperature of the gas will remain constant; but the moment the input is less than the output the mass of gas must cool, so that we have next to consider what will happen to a mass of gas cooling under these circumstances. ”

“ This "work" energy is assumed to be manifested, in the first place, as energy of motion. As already pointed out, no expenditure of energy can be associated with a linear motion of the mass, since that motion is under no restraint, but in virtue of the initial central attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy first communicated may be that of kinetic energy of rotation. Its transmission to the mass will cause the latter to revolve about some axis of symmetry within itself. ”

“ In direct conversion processes we do not need to worry about these mass changes, but at each point we must make sure that all energy is accounted for. For example, in outer space all energy released from fuels (even food) must ultimately be radiated away to empty Space. ”

“ The energy of these oscillations, which can be very substantial, would (as long as the atoms remain unchanged) emerge in no other way than through inertia, by which it opposes to a translational acceleration of the oscillating system, and by the gravitational effect which is apparently in close connection to it. However, the views based on the kinetic theory of gases, which assume the inertial mass as something primarily given and the chemical atoms as rigid bodies or as simple material points, are insufficient for a further development of those ideas ”

“ The starting 82 mass is 0.0461 greater than the final mass and it is this missing mass that has been converted into energy and is responsible for the gamma rays and for the velocity with which alpha particles and beta particles are discharged.
Nuclear Bombardment
Once scientists realized that there was energy which became available when one kind of nucleus was changed into another, an important question arose as to whether such a change could be brought about and regulated by man and whether this might not be made the source of useful power of a kind and amount undreamed of earlier. ”

“ The general direction of motion of the masses must of course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position; this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that mass, less the energy returned. ”

“ For instance, although we have never heard of any progress being made along such lines, it has been pointed out repeatedly that synthesis of a radio-active element of very high atomic weight would theoretically yield an almost perfect accumulator—one many thousands of times as efficient as ours in mass-to-energy ratio. Then, too, you realize, of course, that there is a bare possibility that intra-atomic energy may not be absolutely impossible. ”

“ A nuclear reactor thermoelectric plant having a mass of 1000 kilograms, including shielding, can supply this power for 10,000 hours. The basic fuel cell has a mass of 50 kilograms and consumes 1⁄2 kilogram of chemicals per hour. ”

“ If we suppose that the total original energy is 1,000 times as much as that which has been lost in 1,000 years by radio-active transformation, or enough to last at the same rate for 1,000,000 years, the thermal energy corresponding to the mass-energy of one gram is which is very nearly the same as the water-units, computed by De Volson Wood for the specific heat of the ether. ”

“ Modern science says: The sun is the past, the earth is the present, the moon is the future. From an incandescent mass we have originated, and into a frozen mass we shall turn. Merciless is the law of nature, and rapidly and irresistibly we are drawn to our doom. ”

“ It had been used as a fuel in an industrial plant, till it had been about half annihilated, and now it was in that curious, borderline condition, when it had a tremendous tendency to absorb energy and become matter again, and an equally tremendous tendency to release its energy and become free energy as light or heat. The conditions determined one or the other, and the new Minus Force shells were used under conditions of space that made them exert a tremendous tendency to become matter. Billions of billions of ergs of energy they could absorb, and would absorb. ”

“ Though we may never be able to comprehend human life, we know certainly that it is a movement, of whatever nature it be. The existence of movement unavoidably implies a body which is being moved and a force which is moving it. Hence, wherever there is life, there is a mass moved by a force. All mass possesses inertia, all force tends to persist. ”

“ The potential energy is all there. A current releases it; the energy components reunite to give matter again—hydrogen and oxygen gas. Combustion adds to their volume through heat.
“It is like firing a cannon in there,”—he pointed now to the massive generator—“a super-cannon of tremendous force and a cannon that fires continuously. The endless pressure of expansion gives the thrust that means a constant acceleration of motion out there where gravity is lost. ”

“ Again, if we take the impact of a larger cannon-ball, our earth, which is whirling through space with a velocity of 19 miles a second, we find it to be 98,416,136,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons! [14] Were this energy all converted into heat, it would equal that produced by the combustion of 14 earths of solid coal. [15]
The conversion of heat into motion, however, as already stated, is not as perfect. The best steam-engines economize only one-twentieth of the heat of the fuel. ”