Frank Thilly

“ But human happiness is not the purpose of the universe. If the crystal could think, it would regard crystallization as the highest plan of the world, and the most perfect crystal would be its god. Let man enjoy! ”

“ The human will alone, apart from its relation to the phenomenal world, as Kant would hold? No, for the human personality is a unit, a whole, whose development is conditioned by its interaction with the external world. We cannot limit morality to the sphere of moral willing, but must take account also of the technical aspect, of the moral Können. Nor is it proper to designate feeling as the sole organ of morality, after the manner of hedonists, though feeling, to be sure, cannot be altogether excluded from a science of ethics. ”

“ If we could have real ideas of all numbers, arithmetic would be superfluous. Only an infinite understanding, however, could possess such powers of abstraction. Arithmetic is merely an artificial means of overcoming the imperfections of a finite intellect. The most we can do is to cognize concrete pluralities composed of twelve elements. When we present to ourselves a real idea of plurality, every member of the group is conceived in connection with all the rest. ”

“ Rolfes aims to give the correct Aristotelian conception of God's relation to the universe and to man. God is the beginning and end of all things, not only as τὸ τέλος, but also as efficient cause and living power; he is the creator of the world and its personal, guiding principle, omniscient, omnipotent, and free. The human soul is spiritual in its essence, of divine origin, and immortal. Although Aristotle conceives the deity as the ethical end of humanity, he purposely neglects the religious element in man, confining himself to his worldly perfection. ”

“ After Schiller had conquered these sceptical moods, he portrayed them in the character of the Prince in Der Geisterseher. "Show me a creature that endures," exclaims the latter, "and I'll be virtuous. Everything is subject to change; nothing constant except this mechanical process of causality. The universe is without purpose. All physical and mental occurrences are but links in an endless causal chain. Pleasures and pains set the human mechanism in motion; the desire for happiness, the fundamental impulse of man's nature, is satisfied by momentary pleasures. ”

“ The criterion of truth is, according to Descartes, the clara et distincta perceptio. Perception is neither an act of ideation nor the idea itself, but the subjective act of apprehension (Wahrnehmung) . A perception is clear which is present and manifest to an attentive mind, it is distinct in so far as it is marked off from all other perceptions. ”

“ If the clearness and distinctness of the idea formed the criterion, the mere presence in the mind of such an idea of God would be sufficient evidence of his reality. But Descartes' proof is not merely ontological, it is anthropological. There is present in the soul an idea of God, which possesses more reality than all other ideas. It is clearly manifest that everything must have its cause, and that the efficient cause must have at least as much reality as the effect. ”

“ If God is the end of all finite existence, then, the writer maintains, simple logic demands that he be the originator of everything finite. But philosophers do not invariably draw the conclusions which may seem to some to be simple and natural. What right has the interpreter to make these deductions himself? Dr. Rolfes shoots beyond his mark in endeavoring to elaborate a system which he sets out to explain. Again, God is the principle of all things, ἡ ἀρχὴ καὶ τὸ πρῶτον τῶν ὄντων, says Aristotle, ergo the creator of all things, adds Dr. Rolfes. ”

“ Thus, the universe is conceived as a divine work of art, which it is the highest end of man to contemplate and understand. Every physical phenomenon is the expression of a divine thought. Fischer's keen analysis shows how, in spite of occasional tendencies to materialism, scepticism, and pessimism, this aesthetical ideal prevails in Schiller's compositions, and ultimately triumphs in Die Künstler. ”

“ What a miserable paradox of nature, this free and aspiring spirit is chained to the sluggish, never-changing clock-work of a mortal body, yoked to its petty trials, ruled by its petty desires, this god is relegated to a world of worms. ”

“ The historian is governed by an idea of value, when he subjects the immense mass of events to the sifting process, selecting some, neglecting others. It is an illusion to suppose that we can altogether dispense with these conditions and restrict ourselves entirely to the facts. ”

“ No knowledge, Descartes holds, is more certain than the existence of a thinking subject, and this is based on such an immediate perception or intuition. On this truth as the fundamental proposition the whole chain of reasoning is based; every succeeding deduction must stand the test of the criterion, if it is to have any validity whatever. ”

“ On the whole, then, Aristotle's theology agrees with the Christian conception of the divinity,—a result which cannot but shame unbelief and strengthen our faith in God. The great Greek thinker merits the title of prince of philosophers, and furnishes the proper starting-point for a true philosophy. ”

“ Simmel removes the standpoint of the Philosophy of History from the dogmatic to the critical stage, and herein lies the fundamental merit of his book. The science becomes epistemological and justifies its right to exist as a separate discipline. To describe as its object the discovery of the general tendencies and evolution of occurrences, the unification of certain phenomena, would be to appropriate for it a territory which is the rightful property of the science of history itself. ”

“ The general proposition that pleasure determines a man to develop his faculties and further the common weal does not hold, for the feelings of different persons on occasion of the same natural excitations show differences. In short, utilitarianism cannot explain the most important phenomena of moral life. Welfare or happiness is the end of life; moral laws serve that end. But the individual morality of a people may bring it pain and even death. ”

“ Again, the assertion that moral nations have been destroyed does not warrant the conclusion that morality is not a preservative. No society could exist without moral rules, yet the mere observance of these prescriptions cannot be an absolute guarantee of survival. I cannot live without eating, but eating will not keep me alive forever. Gallwitz also points out that peoples have perished because of their customs, and infers from this that customs do not conduce to the common weal. No one maintains that all customs lead to general welfare ”

“ Now symbolical numbers rest on the symbolical notion of multitude. Symbolically we may, therefore, speak of numbers whose actual ideation transcends the limits of human powers. Signs or names are employed to designate groups that can be collectively combined. ”

“ These conditions are fulfilled only by the perceptio ab intellectu or, as we should say, inner perception. Such a clear and distinct perception is an evident one, the cause of a true judgment. Now, the terms clearness and distinctness, when defining the idea, are not employed in the same sense as in the former case. An idea is distinct when it is accurately marked off from other ideas, clear when it contains its essential property. Descartes' use of the phrase "clear and distinct idea" is synonymous with what modern logic calls notion (Begriff) . ”

“ The bare facts themselves, unrelated to some idea accounted valuable by us, would carry no interest with them. There is no historical reflection which does not "go behind the returns." Even the materialistic conception of history is not free from these unavoidable prejudices. ”

“ The so-called historical laws are in reality no laws at all, but mere statements as to the apparently regular succession of certain phenomena, these phenomena themselves being the effects of a multitude of forces concealed from us. Such laws are, however, useful in that they serve as points of orientation (Orientirungspunkte) , enabling us to arrive at the knowledge of the real laws. But philosophy is not concerned with the discovery of laws ”

“ The attempt to make Aristotle's thought square with Christian theology renders the application of force necessary at times. We except the exposition of the ethical system, which is not subjected to this heroic treatment and which presents, therefore, a clear and unbiased account of the philosopher's views. ”

“ It is interesting to watch the struggle between the poetical fancy of the man and his materialistic doubts. Die philosophischen Briefe, in which this conflict rages, might be called a dialogue between idealism and materialism. "My heart," writes Julius, "was craving for a philosophy, and phantasy substituted its dreams.... A bold attack of materialism overthrows my creation." ”

“ The Christian God is a personal God, creator of heaven and earth, the life-giving spirit underlying all natural occurrence, whose existence inspires us with the hope that our moral life may reach completion. "If there were no God, we should have to invent one in the interest of ethical science." ”

“ The first part of the work deals with psychological questions connected with the concepts, plurality (Vielheit) , unity (Einheit) , and sum (Anzahl) , while the second treats of the symbolical ideas of plurality and sum, and shows how the fact that we are restricted to symbolical number-concepts in arithmetic, determines its character. The author rejects the logical method, which is so strongly advocated by many writers. For him number is the result of psychical processes (p. 130) . Notions like unity and plurality cannot be logically defined, but rest upon ultimate psychical data. ”

“ In the entire chain of reasoning no proposition is accepted as true unless it meets the requirements of the regula generalis.
M. Twardowski's book is as valuable as it is short. In calling attention to a distinction which has been almost universally ignored, he brings us much nearer to a clear understanding of Cartesian epistemology than we were before. ”

“ The notion of plurality ultimately rests upon that of the somewhat (Etwas) , a concept which cannot be further analyzed, nor even explained in the way in which Dr. Husserl explains the other concepts. It seems to be a category in the Kantian sense of "function" or "form" of the intellect, a fact which the author does not, in my opinion, sufficiently appreciate.
Part II proposes to explain, pyschologically and logically, the art of reckoning based on the notions hitherto analyzed, and to investigate its relation to the science of arithmetic. ”

“ In his usual clear and masterly manner Fischer traces Schiller's philosophical development, the knowledge of which he deems essential to a proper understanding and appreciation of the poet's compositions. Works like Die philosophischen Briefe, Der Geisterseher, Die Künstler, must remain obscure to the reader unacquainted with their evolution. A thinker is a part of his country and time, and consequently related to the prevailing course of thought. ”

“ The development of individual personality is accepted by the author as the ethical end. The vagueness generally belonging to the term is obviated by the introduction of theological conceptions. Wherever the theory fails, the deus ex machina steps in. The writer is, however, bolder and more logical than self-realization moralists usually are in drawing the necessary conclusion of the theory. Where there are collisions between personal and social ends, the latter must yield. ”

“ We might easily forgive him for identifying welfare with mere passive enjoyment, but surely his contention that some nations have not consciously aimed at welfare cannot be urged as an argument against the principle. ”

“ The clearness and precision which characterize all of Fischer's writings also belong to the meritorious features of the present work, and contribute to his reputation of being a philosopher "whom one can understand." ”

“ The preface, it is true, gives no promise of this merit, but formulates a problem which, in my opinion, does not confront philosophy at all, unless we return to the intellectual practices of scholasticism. The question, How can the Christian faith that God revealed himself in Jesus Christ be reconciled with the scientific fact that no individual knowledge can be the norm for all times? ”

“ It deserves commendation for the way in which it approaches the problem as well as for its general appreciation of the facts both psychological and historical, and cannot fail to be of service to those interested in the subject of ethics. ”

“ Chief stress is, and must be, laid by the author on his first thesis, which asserts the efficient causality of the prime mover. He brings his most effective artillery into action here for the purpose of fortifying a position which forms the key to the whole situation. ”

“ If we were restricted to this act, no conception of a multitude (Menge) would be possible. A hasty glance at a crowd of persons at once gives us the idea that it is a multitude. This is due not to a "collective combination," but to sensible quasi-qualities of the multitude itself, viz. ”

“ Since, however, it cannot be developed in isolation, there arises the duty to participate in social life. But, "in situations where the assertion of individual life of personality conflicts with the maintenance of civilization, i. ”