Aaron A. Warford

“ Hydrogen gas is the lightest substance known, being fifteen times lighter than atmospheric air. It is colorless and transparent, incapable of supporting combustion or respiration, but is itself combustible. Hydrogen, as its name implies (being derived from two Greek words, signifying the generator of water) , is a constituent of water in the proportion of one-ninth by weight, and is always obtained by decomposing that fluid, by presenting to it some body to take up its other ingredient, oxygen, and so set the hydrogen at liberty. ”

“ Until Sir H. Davy’s discovery of the metals of the alkalies, great specific gravity was regarded as one of the most striking characteristics of a metal, the lightest of them being much heavier than the heaviest earth; but potassium is very much lighter than water, and not much heavier than spirits of wine. The other metals vary from a specific gravity of nearly twenty-one—or twenty-one times heavier than an equal bulk of water—that of platinum, to somewhat less than seven, which is the specific gravity of antimony. ”

“ In a few minutes the retort will be filled with a white cloud; then the gas generated will begin to bubble at the end of the saucer; a minute more, each bubble, as it issues from the boiling fluid, will spontaneously take fire as it comes into the air, forming at the same time the philosopher’s ring of phosphoric acid. Care is required in handling phosphorus; but our young chemical readers will, we think, not forego this wonderful experiment for the want of due attention; for, without proper care on their part, we must give up showing them wonders even greater than these. ”

“ Sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner, but its fumes, when heated, are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter them.
One of the most remarkable facts in chemistry, a science abounding in wonders, is the circumstance, that the mere contact of hydrogen, the lightest body known, with the metal platinum, the heaviest, when in a state of minute division, called spongy platinum, produces an intense heat, sufficient to inflame the hydrogen; of course this experiment must be made in the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen. ”

“ Oxygen is largely distributed over our globe, both in its uncombined state, and in union with other substances. Besides forming one-fifth of the atmosphere, it forms eight-ninths by weight of all the water in the ocean, rivers, and springs on the face of the whole earth. It also, in combination with various metals, forms the various earths and minerals of which the crust of the earth consists, so that it is the most abundant and widely distributed substance in nature, and in combination with other elements, forms nearly half the weight of the solid earth. ”

“ The next substance in our list of elementary bodies is named carbon.
The purest form of carbon is the precious stone called diamond, which consists entirely of carbon in a crystallized form. The French chemist Lavoisier was the first who proved the combustibility of the diamond; and Sir H. Davy found that when once set on fire it would continue to burn in oxygen gas air, and that the product of the combustion was carbonic acid gas, exactly equal in quantity to the gas produced by burning an equal weight of pure charcoal, the most common form of carbon. ”

“ It is the presence of this gas which renders it so dangerous to descend into deep wells, for by its great weight it collects at the bottom, and instantly suffocates any unfortunate person who incautiously subjects himself to it. Hence it is prudent always to let down a lighted candle before any one descends into a well, or other deep excavation, and if the candle is extinguished, it is necessary to throw down several pails of water—lime-water, if possible—and again to try the candle, which must burn freely before it is safe for any one to descend. ”

“ With chlorine, hydrogen forms a compound called muriatic, or hydrochloric acid gas. It cannot easily be formed by the direct union of its elements, but is procured from some compound in which it exists ready formed. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is generally employed; and when acted on by strong [41] sulphuric acid (or oil of vitriol) , the gas is disengaged in abundance. It must be collected over mercury, for water absorbs it, forming the liquid muriatic, or hydrochloric acid.
A lighted taper plunged into this gas is instantly extinguished. It is very dangerous to animal life if respired. ”

“ When the air blows upon these strings with different degrees of force, it will excite different tones of sound. Sometimes the blast brings out all the tones in full concert, and sometimes it sinks them to the softest murmurs. ”

“ The metals proper, the most important of which are:—platinum, gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc, bismuth, antimony, manganese, cobalt, arsenic.
Now, from these elementary bodies, united together in various proportions, is formed the infinite variety of substances around us, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral; in fact, a few only are generally employed:—in the case of animals and vegetables, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, with occasionally some sulphur, calcium, phosphorus, and silicon, suffice for building up the beautiful forms of animated nature ”

“ If a piece of charcoal, which is pure carbon or nearly so, be ignited, and introduced into a jar containing oxygen or common atmospheric air, the product will be carbonic gas only, of which we shall speak presently. As most combustible bodies contain both carbon and hydrogen, the result of their combination is carbonic acid and water. ”

“ The figures themselves are made of the pith of elder trees, or any other very light substance. Each is placed on half a bullet, or may be made to stand on its head, by making its cap of lead. Their appearance is very droll when they are moved about, as they seem every moment to be falling over, and yet continually right themselves. The philosophy of this is, that the center of gravity being in the base, and always trying to assume the lowest position, it keeps the figures upright. However much the equilibrium is disturbed, it will always try to regain its original position. ”

“ From the beginning to the end the student is surprised and delighted with the developments of the exact discrimination, as well as the power and capacity, which are displayed in various forms of chemical action. Dissolve two substances in the same fluid, and then, by evaporation or otherwise, cause them to reassume a solid form, and each particle will unite with its own kind, to the entire exclusion of all others. Thus, if sulphate of copper and carbonate of soda are dissolved in boiling water, and then the water is evaporated, each salt will be reformed as before. ”

“ With nitrogen, hydrogen unites and forms one of the most extraordinary compounds in the whole range of chemistry,—the gas called ammonia. This is the only gas possessing what are called alkaline properties; i.e., it changes the blue color of certain vegetables to green, yellow to deep brown, and unites with the acids to form neutral compounds, just as the other alkalies, potash and soda, which are oxides of metals. ”

“ The atmosphere contains also a variable quantity of vapor of water, invisible as long as it is in the state of vapor, but it may be rendered obvious by bringing any very cold body into warm air, when the vapor will condense on the cold body in the form of small drops of water. A tumbler of fresh-pumped water brought into a crowded room is almost immediately covered with moisture, and it may also be seen on bottles of wine which have been put into ice before coming to table. Fogs are occasioned by the condensation of vapor produced by mixing a current of warm air with a colder air. ”

“ Now oil of vitriol (strong sulphuric acid) has so powerful an affinity, or so great a thirst for water, that it will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists; if you then pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar, or place a chip of wood in it, the sugar or wood will speedily become quite black, or be charred, as it is called, in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen being removed by the sulphuric acid, and only the carbon, or charcoal, left. ”

“ Heat a piece of the metal potassium in a metal spoon (platinum is best) , and if introduced in a state of ignition into the gas, it will continue burning brilliantly, producing a quantity of dense smoke, which is the carbon from the carbonic acid, the potassium having seized the oxygen, and being converted by it into potash. ”

“ If the steam of water be passed through a red-hot gun-barrel, containing iron filings, the water is decomposed, the iron taking the oxygen, and the hydrogen comes over in torrents; but as every one has not a gun-barrel and furnace to heat it, the usual mode is to employ dilute sulphuric acid, and iron filings, or zinc, in small pieces, and it may be collected over water by means of a bent tube issuing from the bottle in which it is formed. ”

“ If you have an iron bottle, the first mode is by far the cheapest, as the heat of a bright fire is sufficient for the operation, and a large quantity of gas is obtained in a short time from a very inexpensive material. The most rapid and convenient process of all is to heat a mixture of two parts chlorate of potash, and one of powdered black oxide of manganese, in a common clean oil flask, to which a cork and bent tube has been adapted. Care must be taken not to mistake sulphide of antimony for black oxide of manganese, as very serious accidents have arisen from this cause. ”

“ Seven hundred years and more have passed away, and that which was only the pursuit of a shadow called alchemy, has resulted in the acquisition of a great and noble science, now and again called chemistry. So it is with the great edifice Chemistry; we may, in these brief pages, peep in at the open door, but should we desire to go beyond the threshold, there are numerous guides, such as Roscoe, Wilson, and Fownes, who will conduct us through the mazes of the interior, and explain in elementary language the beautiful processes which have become so useful to mankind. ”

“ If a light be placed to the end of the pipe, a flame will be produced, which will continue to burn so long as there is any visible action in the bottle. This flame is the ignited hydrogen gas (water gas) , resulting from the decomposition of water by the acid and zinc, and as such is an exceedingly interesting experiment. Now, to be musical, procure a glass or metal pipe, about sixteen or eighteen inches long, and from half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter ”

“ It is a powerful supporter of combustion, and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life, which cannot exist for any time without a free supply of this gas, which is constantly consumed in the act of breathing and is replaced by an equivalent portion of carbonic acid gas. The want of oxygen is partly the cause of the oppression felt in crowded rooms, where the air cannot be renewed so fast as is required for the number of persons who are constantly consuming the oxygen ”

“ Now fill a wine-glass or tumbler with the lime-water thus made, and blow through the liquid with a glass tube, a piece of new tobacco-pipe, or a clean straw, and in the course of a minute or so—as the magicians say—“the water will be turned into milk.” By means of this pastime “Wise Men” can ascertain which young ladies are in love and which young gentlemen are not. With a shrewd guess they present, as a test, a glass of lime-water to the one and of pure water to the other, with unerring effect. ”