“ If German consuls as a whole have been especially active and successful in promoting German commercial interests, it is not on account of the nature of the instructions received from their government, these instructions being to all intents and purposes similar to those issued to British consuls, but because particular care was taken to select consuls from a class of men imbued with the desire of increasing the greatness of their country by the promotion of German trade. ”

“ Chambers of commerce in other parts of the German Empire are not so important, nor are their duties so varied, as in the Hanseatic chambers of towns. The oldest ones were established by Napoleon Commerce in 1802 in Cologne, Crefeld, Aachen, Stolberg and other towns which were then under the control of France, and they we resubmitted to the legislation which regulated the chambers organized in France at the same time. The model set up by the French was more or less closely followed in the subsequent establishment of institutions of this nature in other German states. ”

“ American trade organizations have been developed mainly on the lines of the British system. Of the associations which come within the scope of this article, the most important are'the chambers of commerce, which in certain cases are called boards of trade. Theoretically there is a distinction between the two, chambers of commerce being entrusted with the protection of general commercial interests, especially in connexion with foreign trade, whilst boards of trade look after local commercial questions. ”

“ These bodies, however, did not exercise much influence under the monarchy. Including the Marseilles chamber, they were suppressed, with all trade gilds and other trade associations, in 1789. Napoleon re-established the chambers by decree of the 24th of December 1802, and endowed them with a constitution similar, in essential particulars, to the one they have at present, which has served as a model for chambers of commerce on the Continent, but he submitted them to a uniform and narrow* administrative jurisdiction which practically deprived them of all initiative. ”

“ In addition to institutions representative of the general interests of commerce and industry, the principal trades have also in the larger cities separate associations or syndicates. There are a large number of associations for the promotion of colonial trade, which have grown up since the establishment of the Congo Free State. A number of Belgian chambers of commerce also exist abroad, the first of which was established in New York in 1867. ”

“ The society has over 6000 members, and its usefulness may be gauged by the fact that it answers an average of 40,000 credit inquiries every year. Trade protection societies formed themselves, as early as 1848, into an association, which was at first an association of secretaries, but in 1865 was transformed into an association of societies. The association issues a quarterly journal called the Trade Protection Journal. ”

“ Those which, without engaging in trade, aim at providing facilities for the transaction of commercial or financial operations. They chiefly take the form of exchanges, bourses, public sale rooms, &c., such as the Baltic, Lloyd’s, the Stock Exchange, the Corn and Coal Exchanges, the Commercial Sale Rooms. ”

“ The German Empire has no ministry of commerce. As in the United States, commercial matters form only a department of the ministry of state. Most .of the states of the empire have, however, their own ministries of commerce, the oldest being the Prussian ministry of commerce and industry, which dates from 1848. ”

“ Trade Protection Societies.—These seem to be, on the whole, more ancient bodies than chambers of commerce. In the early part of the 19th century they were already strongly organized, especially in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Outside of that district the Dublin Society was the most important. They number more than 100 throughout the United Kingdom. ”

“ These chambers, of which there are some fifty in existence, are laced under the control of the minister of commerce, but instead of being kept out of the patentes, like chambers of commerce, they are supported by the municipality of the town where they are situated, which has also to provide them with offices rent free, and with clerical assistance. In addition to giving advice in connexion with manufacturing and industrial matters, they have to look after and report upon improvements in manufactures and machinery, new industrial processes, &c. ”

“ Those which are themselves engaged in trade, like ordinary joint-stock companies, or which result from the combination of firms or individuals in the same or connected trades, for the purpose of facilitating or restricting production, limiting competition, regulating prices, &c. ”

“ Bremen and Lübeck are not only the successors of, but (contrary to what happened in Germany as well as in other countries) have been evolved out of the old corporations which looked after the interests of the Hans traders in the olden days, and which, in the case of the Hamburg “Commerz-Deputation,” for instance, dated as far back as 1665. ”

“ The American consular service has been frequently pointed out as a model to be followed in connexion with commercial matters. America, contrary to the European practice, has no consuls de carrière. Her consular representatives are appointed for a period of, as a rule, four years, andConsular Service. are selected in preference from commercial circles. Their work, as compared with that of British consuls, is rather limited, and they have nothing to monopolize their time like the shipping interests with which the British consular body is entrusted in most cor1r1trics=. ”