Cartographer

“ Many a cartographer, burning with desire to draw a good map of a newly explored region, has been driven to despair by the inadequacy of the route surveys in his hands. Not a few of these surveys have been unworthy of reproduction in the books of the explorers who made them, and the best that could be done was to generalize their information on maps of comparatively small scale. ”

“ The primary problem of the cartographer is to show by symbolic notation on a flat surface all the varying heights and shapes assumed by, or imposed upon, the earth's surface, above or below sea-level. ”

“ The unique and peculiarly shaped map made by the German cartographer, Johann Ruysch, contained in the edition of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography, printed at Rome, in 1508, [287] is the earliest engraved chart on which appear the fields of discovery, in the western hemisphere, entered by Columbus, Cabot, Cortereal, Cabral, Vespucci, and other early explorers of the coast of the new continent. ”

“ In the former case the cartographer is merely called upon to reduce and generalize the information given by his originals, to make a judicious selection of place names, and to take care that the map is not overcrowded with names and details. Far more difficult is his task where no surveys are available, and the map has to be compiled from a variety of sources. These materials generally include reconnaissance survey of small districts, route surveys and astronomical observations supplied by travellers, and information obtained from native sources. ”

“ They can be made to represent anything that any map can, though their special province is the exhibition of general facts where minute details are negligible. In fact, the encumbering of a large map with a multitude of names and other data is the cardinal sin of the cartographer. The two broad classes of facts put upon maps are political and physical, and almost always in combination, as neither one has very much meaning without the other. ”

“ Map Projections are dealt with separately below. It will suffice therefore to point out that the ordinary needs of the cartographer can be met by conical projections, and, in the case of maps covering a wide area, by Lambert’s equal area projection. The indiscriminate use of Mercator’s projection, for maps of the world, is to be deprecated owing to the inordinate exaggeration of areas in high latitudes. In the case of topographical maps sheets bounded by meridians and parallels are to be commended. ”

“ Ancient maps were not without high merits in certain cases, and a little after Prince Henry's time the Renaissance editions of Ptolemy played a very important part in geographical history. But in the first part of the fifteenth century neither the work of the Alexandrian astronomer and cartographer, nor the ancient road maps of the Roman Empire and surrounding lands [236] seem to have been sufficiently known for the exercise of much influence in the progress of discovery or of geographical knowledge. ”

“ To this day, notwithstanding all that has been done by two or three exceptional map-houses in this country, if you want a good map, conveying accurately and yet graphically the fundamental contrasts, you must have resort as often as not to one of German origin. The reason is that in Germany there are many cartographers who are scholarly geographers and not merely surveyors or draftsmen. They can exist, because there is a wide public educated to appreciate and pay for intelligently drawn maps. ”

“ Fortunately, there are not many explorers of this stripe.
All who watched the progress of African discovery were constantly reminded that geographical progress is usually made only by slow and painful steps. They saw an explorer emerge from the unknown with his notebooks and route maps replete with most interesting facts for the student and the cartographer. Then another explorer would enter the same region, discover facts that had escaped the notice of the pioneer, correct blunders his predecessor had made and perpetrate blunders of his own ”

“ Nowadays, however, teachers have a number of more or less excellent manuals at their service, and the educational maps issued by our cartographers show in many cases a very great advance on the bald and misleading caricatures which did duty in my young days as pictures of the earth’s surface. ”

“ It may take dozens of smooth sheets to cover the area of a complete survey. The smooth sheets are then ready for cartographers, who will choose representative soundings manually or using automated systems from thousands shown, to produce a nautical chart. ”

“ Commercial considerations are not to be overlooked; cheap and rapid methods of reproduction bring their temptations as well as their advantages to bear upon cartography. Their advantages are manifest; the map, whether as an adjunct to travel or as a graphic illustration of a great variety of subjects, has become a commodity of almost daily use. But in some countries, such as the United States, the standard of cartography generally is as low as that of the maps of the survey is high. ”

“ The method of large surveys obtained the name of Cadastre (Terrier map) . It was suggested for France in 1763, but was only commenced in that country in 1793. The exact derivation and meaning of the French term "cadastre" are not free from dispute. Some authorities refer it to the verb "cadrer" to square or correspond with, all objects on a large scale, plan, or cadastre being shown in their true position and proportions, whereas in a mere topographical map similar accuracy is impossible, and certain features must need be exaggerated for the sake of distinctness. ”

“ Rafn's fault was, however, no greater than that committed by the modern makers of so-called "ancient atlases"—still current and in use in schools—when, for example, they take a correct modern map of Europe, with parts of Africa and Asia, and upon countries so dimly known to the ancients as Scandinavia and Hindustan, but now drawn with perfect accuracy, they simply print the ancient names!! Nothing but confusion can come from using such wretched maps. The only safe way to study the history of geography is to reproduce the ancient maps themselves, as I have done in the present work. ”

“ In 1853 a statistical conference held at Brussels and attended by twenty-six delegates from the chief States of Europe considered the question of national maps or cadastres, and pronounced unanimously in favor of a scale of 1/2500th of nature equivalent to about 251/3 inches to a mile, recommending at the same time that the cadastre on this scale should be accompanied by a more general map on the scale of 1/10,000 equivalent to about six 1/3 inches to a mile, and thus very nearly corresponding to the six inch scale of the Ordnance Survey. ”

“ When the map is dry it should be trimmed all round and folded to its proper size, viz.—a trifle smaller than the book will be when cut. If it is left larger the folds will naturally be cut away, and the only remedy will be a new map, which means a new copy of the work. For all folded maps or plates a corresponding thickness must be placed in the backs where the maps go, or the foredge will be thicker than the back. Pieces of paper called guards, are folded from 1⁄4 inch to 1 inch in width, according to the size of the book, and placed in the back, and sewn through as a section. ”

“ I propose to give a brief account of what we knew about it before the time of Gerard Krehmer, better known by his Latinized name of Mercator, who produced a large map of the world more than three centuries ago.
It is generally thought that the art of pictorial representation is older than the art of writing, and, if this be so, it is probable that the art of representation by maps is very ancient. Such delineations are in use among very primitive peoples. The Esquimaux understood the charts of Parry and Ross, and the North American Indians make rude maps, which they find serviceable to them. ”

“ Modern Cartography.—The compiler of maps of the present day enjoys many advantages not enjoyed by men similarly occupied a hundred years ago. Topographical surveys are gradually extending, and explorers of recent years are better trained for their work than they were a generation ago, whilst technical processes of recent invention—such as lithography, photography and heliogravure—facilitate or expedite the completion of his task. ”

“ He is called upon more especially to give a satisfactory delineation of the ground, he must meet the requirements of various classes of the public, and be prepared to record cartographically all the facts of physical or political geography which are capable of being recorded on his maps. The ingenuity of the compiler is frequently taxed when called upon to illustrate graphically the results of statistical information of every description.
Germany since the middle of the 19th century has become the headquarters of scientific cartography. ”

“ In the celluloid method of transferring a map or parts of a map to paper upon which a complete new map is to be drawn the map or part of the map to be copied is photographed to the exact scale of the new drawing and reproduced in graphite on thin sheets of celluloid.
The celluloid sheet is then laid face down in the correct position on the drawing paper and firmly rubbed on the back with a steel burnisher, which makes a perfect offset of the map on the paper. After the parts desired are inked over the rest of the graphite print is easily erased with an ordinary rubber. ”

“ Consequently, "An act for the encouragement of learning by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned," was approved at the second session of the First Congress, May 31, 1790.^ This law required that the author or proprietor deposit a copy of any book or map published, or deposit a printed copy of the title of such book or map, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court where the author or proprietor shall reside. The Clerk was required to record the entry in a book
to be kept by him for that purpose. ”

“ Maps that fold lie generally but one way, and are mostly of strong paper, so that when they are doubled by an inattentive hand, contrary to the original fold they got at binding, they break, and come asunder in quarters and square pieces, the map is destroyed, and the book ever after incomplete; whereas, even if this misfortune happens to a map placed in the Appendix, it may either be taken out and joined anew, or replaced at very little expence by a fresh map from the bookseller. ”

“ In preparing an original geologic map a letter symbol, such as has been just described, or a number should be put in the proper place in the explanation, and the same symbol or number should be repeated at one or more places on the map within the areas to which it refers. Each area that is indicated by a color should be marked with the proper symbol in order to make its identification sure, for light colors especially are likely to fade and mixed colors can not be discriminated with certainty. ”

“ The size of a symbol must depend on its importance on the map bearing it. On a map that shows numerous mines, for instance, the crossed hammers or the symbols for shafts should be not only visible but conspicuous. The draftsman who is to make such a map must know beforehand how much his drawing will be reduced in reproduction and must make the symbols in proportion to the reduction. The symbols shown in Plate II (p. 20) should be used in all the Survey's illustrations where they are appropriate. ”

“ Much the same may be said of the dikes of cooled magma which have been injected along preëxisting fractures.
The base of the geological map.—Modern topographic maps form an important part of the library of the serious student of physiography; they are the gazetteer of this branch of science. Every civilized nation has to-day either completed a topographic atlas of its territory, or it is vigorously prosecuting a survey to furnish maps which represent the relief with some detail, and publishing the results in the form of an atlas of quadrangles. ”

“ It is not too much to say that the honour of being their lucky discoverer has long been considered as the highest possible prize to be obtained amongst students in the field of ancient cartography. But until the summer of 1901, although many copies of the book are known in various editions, no specimen of either the globe or map has ever been seen or heard of in modern times. ”

“ One may afterwards follow out each recognized lineation into further complexities or joinings, as you might trace out a railway line with its various junctions in a map.
Diagrammatic Analysis of Lineations in a Restricted Section.
A photographic enlargement, meant for forensic use, ought not to be marked or soiled in any way, but dots of coloured chalk or ink might be placed along the margins to denote where imaginary ruled lines might begin or end. One might also use glazed tissue paper, ruled in squares, or with eccentric circles like the mileage lines in a map of London. ”

“ The engraver or the lithographer will supply such matter in proper form according to specifications. For direct reproduction, however, as by photolithography or zinc etching, the lettering must either be carefully drawn with pen or printed from type on slips, which are pasted on the drawing.
GRAPHIC SCALES FOR MAPS.
A bar scale for miles or feet should be given on every map, and if the map is of international interest the metric scale should be given just beneath the scale of miles or feet. The accepted designs for these scales are shown in figure 7. ”

“ Map Printing.—Maps were first printed in the second half of the 15th century. Those in the Rudimentum novitiarum published at Lübeck in 1475 are from woodcuts, while the maps in the first two editions of Ptolemy published in Italy in 1472 are from copper plates. Wood engraving kept its ground for a considerable period, especially in Germany, but copper in the end supplanted it, and owing to the beauty and clearness of the maps produced by a combination of engraving and etching it still maintains its ground. ”