James Slough Zerbe

“ There never has been any question as to the value of electric motors for traction service. Wherever a current of electricity can be distributed and transmitted to a motor, it is the most satisfactory method of moving vehicles, as has been shown in street railways.
Requirements.—But on individual cars, incapable of getting current from a system of wiring, the matter presents an entirely different aspect, and brings forth new problems, hence storage batteries must be resorted to, and this involves the consideration of many elements that may be ignored with the usual traction system. ”

“ If all the gasoline is drawn from a tank, the sides of the tank will retain enough gasoline to form a heavy vapor of hydro-carbon gases. This gas is heavier than air, and, like water, will remain in the bottom. Sooner or later some of the gas will pass out, particularly the lighter portions, and air will intermingle with the gas, and it is then in a ripe condition for an explosion. ”

“ While few mechanics have the opportunity to actually build an automobile, it is the knowledge, which he must acquire about every particular device used, that enables him to repair and put such machines in order. ”

“ In the gasoline car provision is made whereby, through the change speed gears, the engine gets the benefit of the leverage, by reducing the speed of the axle, relative to the engine shaft, at first speed, and this enables the motor to pull the car up steep grades, or over difficult roads, which it would not be able to do if the relative rotations were the same as at high speed. ”

“ Short Circuiting Faults.—A short circuit is one where the path of the current is from the lead to the return wire at some point between the battery, or source of electrical energy, and the coil or other mechanism which is to be operated by the electricity. ”

“ The building and development of auto vehicles form one of the most remarkable pages in the history of manufactures. The subject nearest the boy is the motorcycle, which is a direct development of the bicycle. From this to the larger power vehicles is but another step, so that in setting forth the structures involved the aim should be to show how one form of device grew out of the preceding one, and how each structure following in the train, became desirable and necessary. ”

“ If a drop of gasoline, in one case is broken up into five hundred tiny particles, and in the other case into one thousand, it is obvious that in the latter case the air comes into contact with double the surface of the liquid than in the former case, hence will be so much more efficient, for the following reason:
Perfect combustion is the desired object in the engine cylinder. The more nearly the vapor approaches (121) an impalpable gas the quicker will it ignite. Furthermore, the more intimate the air and the vapor are mixed the better will be the explosion or combustion. ”

“ The Steering Column.—This is a very important mechanical element of the car. Its direct useful functions are to carry or hold the mechanism for steering the machine, and for the motor control, controlling the air supply for the fuel, as well as for regulating the sparking mechanism.
Motor Control.—Some machines are provided with a foot lever mechanism (accelerator) as well as the throttle lever on the steering wheel. This is advantageous, because in moving through crowded streets, where frequent and quick changes are necessary, the foot is the most convenient for controlling purposes. ”

“ If the learner will remember that the object of temporarily throwing out the clutch, is to allow the clutch shaft to slow down, and then move the transmission lever afterwards, he will be able, after several trials, to catch them at a point where they will easily engage each other without any noise.
This applies to the selection type, also.
It has been stated that a locomotive engineer becomes so used to the feel of his engine that he can sense a wrong action of any part of the immense mechanism under his control. ”

“ If anything is due to the engine itself, in the vast majority of cases, it is due to poor compression. The engine is too often blamed for faults which belong elsewhere. Nevertheless, it is well carefully to examine the bearings, to look over the clutch, and the bearings in the line leading to the drive shaft.
Starting the Engine.—In starting, some engines give a great deal of trouble, usually due to wrong adjustment of the sparking device. This should not be advanced too much. If the trouble is not at that point, it may arise from too weak a suction, or an obstruction in the carbureter itself. ”

“ Economy in Use of Current.—The same thing is necessary in the operation of the electric motor. The current must be so arranged that at certain periods it will be more effective than at others, and this effectiveness is generally wanted at times when the axles turn very slow, just the same as with the gasoline car.
This economizes, and prevents the waste of current. It is accomplished by connecting up the cells in such a manner that they may give a large voltage and small amperage, or a low voltage and great amperage, and in doing so will not detract from the efficiency of the battery. ”

“ On the other hand, if one wheel should be loose, then, as power is applied to the shaft, the tractive action would be on one wheel only, and this would be bad practice, and frequently cause the wheel to slip, and thus unduly increase the wear of the tire.
The differential is made up of a system of gears, which are so arranged that one wheel may turn independently of the other, and at the same time the effective driving power is utilized by each. ”

“ Condenser.—One of these is a condenser, which, while a spark can be produced without it, is nevertheless an important element. The office of a condenser is to absorb a certain amount of current. It will be remembered that the drawing apart of the points in a conductor, produced a spark. Now in the secondary current, of the high tension system, is an interrupter, a mechanism that makes and breaks the circuit continuously. ”

“ When the engine draws in a supply of carbureted air, more or less of a vacuum is brought about in the mixing chamber O. The faster the engine runs the richer will the mixture become, because the additional suction draws in an increasing quantity of gasoline, but the throat of the tube does not change, and the requisite, proportionate quantity of air does not follow, so that the mixture has too much fuel for the air. ”

“ Compression as a Mixing Means.—It will also be understood, that compression permits the bringing together of a much larger amount of fuel at each charge than would be possible without it, so that the two factors, namely, the volatilizing action of the air, the mixing of the air and vapor, and the compression, all serve to mix together the elements which will produce an explosion when the proper heat is finally applied. ”

“ The Meaning of Differential.—This is a term used to designate the difference in the turning movement of two wheels on opposite ends of an axle. For various reasons they do not turn at the same rate of speed, particularly in turning corners, where the outer wheel must travel a greater distance than the inner wheel. ”

“ The universal use of electricity as a means of igniting the fuel in gasoline motors, makes it necessary that the novice should know something of the fundamentals of the science.
Seeing the Effect of Electricity.—While it is impossible to see a current, there are certain mechanical devices which enables it to be seen by the effects produced on them. One of these devices is the armature which, if placed across the poles of a horseshoe magnet, will adhere to the magnet, by means of its magnetic pull. ”

“ Pressure Method.—Supplementing the splash, and frequently used as the sole mean is the plan adopted by many, and known as the pressure system, which not only lubricates the bearings and cylinders, but also the other mechanism in the car, is the use of pressure, which may be exerted by gravity, or by the use of hand pumps.
Some employ the exhaust of the engine to draw up the oil. This requires ducts leading to all the parts which are adapted to take a liquid lubricant. ”

“ Resistance.—The length of a wire also serves to check the flow, and this may be overcome by enlarging the size of the wire, or by increasing the pressure, or voltage.
Generating Electricity.—A current may be generated by a dynamo, or by means of cells. The dynamo derives its motion from an engine, which turns, what is called, the armature past a number of magnets, called the field. The armature contains a series of wire wrappings, extending around from end to end, and the field is composed of metallic heads, each carrying a coil. ”

“ Sometimes a small fiber will be lodged somewhere in the pipes, and this will catch small particles, and temporarily arrest them. The accumulated mass when dislodged blocks the valve, and the mystery seems inexplainable.
Wrong adjustment in a carbureter manifests itself in three ways: If the smoke is black, and the flame is red, the mixture is too rich; a yellow flame indicates a lean mixture; and a blue flame and clear exhaust shows that it is properly set.
If an explosion takes place in the muffler, it is an indication that gasoline, or the vapor, has been carried over ”

“ In this type the electric motor is connected with the axle of the vehicle, so that it is always ready for service whether the gasoline motor is running or not.
In the ordinary gasoline automobile it is essential that the motor must be maintained in service at all times, so that any derangement in that part of the system, which includes the mechanism intermediate the motor and axle, or the electrical devices, or the carbureter, means a dead car. ”

“ Proper cooling is a necessary feature of all gasoline motors, otherwise the intense heat of the burning fuel would expand the pistons to such an extent as to prevent their free motion in the cylinders, as well as destroy the spark plugs, injure the springs, and make lubrication a difficult matter, if not impossible, by burning up the oil. ”

“ The thing most necessary to guard against is punctures, caused either by sharp stones, or nails. When a casing has a heavy protective tread the inner tube may not be effected, but it frequently happens that the outer casing is slitted for some distance, and the great pressure forces the thin wall of the inner tube into the slitted opening, and it is thus ruptured, not on account of its being punctured, but because the outer tire did not afford protection against the pressure. ”

“ As the engine is mounted on the frame of the car, which rests on springs, and the axle is below the springs, it is obvious that the drive must be transmitted between two parts which have a relative up and down movement.
This necessitates several things, structurally, which should be considered.
First. A flexible joint must be interposed in the system, where a shaft is used to transmit the power.
Second. Torsion rods are necessary to prevent the housing or casing of the rear axle from (56) turning, due to reaction of the driving bevel gear. ”

“ But in an automobile it would be difficult to use an elevated reservoir, and, furthermore, as means must be provided to cool the water, such disposition of the reservoir would be still more impracticable.
Fig. 74. Cooling System.
The area forward of the engine is the most available space for placing the water tank, and, especially for the reasons that the radiator itself may be utilized for inclosing the engine hood, and because the air, which is only partially heated (113) in passing through the radiator, serves to keep the space within the hood reasonably cool. ”

“ Dead axles are used with double chain drive, as, in that case, the sprocket wheels are attached directly to the sides of the wheels and the wheels turn on the studs, or ends of the dead axle.
Live Axles.—1. Plain live axles originally consisted of a shaft without differential gearing, having one wheel fast on it, the other turning. Modern construction shows two axle shafts in a housing, the weight of the car, and the tooth pressure of the differential being carried by the axle shafts. ”

“ All machines have signaling horns of some character, operated, usually, by some mechanical arrangement connected with the gearing or by compressed air, and others are connected up with the engine exhaust. Chime whistles are so operated.
Speed Signals.—Other inventions are designed to indicate, by automatic mechanism, the speed of the car, in which color displays the relative speed. Thus, a car going at the normal speed, say 10 (163) miles per hour, would show a white light ”

“ Constructing a Coil.—Such a coil is shown in section in Fig. 89, in which the core A is a hard rubber or fiber tube, with disk ends B of the same material. The primary wire C is large in cross section, and carefully insulated. The opposite ends are brought out through the disk heads, and run to the generator, that is, the battery or dynamo. The fine wire D, which constitutes the secondary winding, is also of insulated wire, wrapped over the primary, and its ends are connected up with the sparking mechanism, as will be more fully explained hereinafter. ”

“ Reversing.—When the car is not running the gears G H are always in a neutral position, as shown in Fig. 41, and in order to reverse shaft B, the lever P, is drawn back, as shown in Fig. 44, so that the small gear O, will engage with the large and the small gears H M, respectively. The result is, gear H, is reversed, and this reversal can take place only when the two gears G H are in a neutral position.
The term progressive takes its name from the motion of the control lever involved in changing the gears. It proceeds regularly from the lowest to the highest. ”

“ The straight line drive is most desirable, in every way, as the full power of the engine is available, and this is usually arranged for by lowering the engine bed sufficiently so that the shaft will point straight to the axle when the car is loaded. ”

“ For ordinary stops, close the throttle, so as to allow the engine to reduce the speed on its compression, then throw out the clutch with the left foot, and follow this up by pressing the brake pedal with the right foot, so as to gradually bring the car to a stop.
Then put the transmission lever to its neutral position.
Ease in Manipulating Progressive System.—Of the two types, the progressive system of transmission is the easiest to master, as the novice frequently finds it difficult to quickly grasp the position and movement of the lever. He has so many things to learn about at the start. ”

“ After the clutch engages and the car has traveled about ten feet, pressure on the accelerator is released, and the clutch pedal pulled down quickly, and the lever is then pulled straight back to the second speed.
Using the Clutch and Selector.—For the third and fourth speeds the same course is followed. If, in hill climbing, or in going through a heavy stretch of mud or sand, lower speed is required, the clutch is thrown out, and, if traveling on fourth speed, the control lever is quickly pulled to the rear end of the slot, and then the clutch thrown in. ”

“ As soon as ignition takes place, the driver merely shuts off the valve, and no further attention is required to operate it.
Lighting.—Most cars depend for illumination on the use of compressed gas usually, some form of acetylene, which makes a brilliant light, and is not expensive.
The best cars, however, are also equipped with electricity, some depending on storage batteries, (162) and others on current generated on the car itself. There is nothing in either system that requires any special explanation, nor are they difficult to care for and operate. ”

“ Thin Mixtures.—On the other hand, a thin mixture will compress better and burn with greater facility, and at the same time heat the cylinder less than the rich mixture, to say nothing of the saving in fuel. It has long been recognized that a carbureter will not act uniformly with all engines. Some have better compression than others, and some have more efficient sparking means. This has a bearing on the character of the fuel delivered to the cylinders. ”

“ On the other hand, the magneto with its field 1 of a permanent magnet, the armature 2 is in a permanent magnetic field, so that the current can be taken directly from the brushes 3 by the wires 4, as in Fig. 88.
Advantages of Magneto.—Owing to the permanent magnetized character of the field, it operates more satisfactory for ignition purposes on an automobile than a regular type of dynamo. The dynamo should be driven at a regular speed, whereas the magneto can be driven at any speed, as it is not self regulating, like the magneto. ”

“ Self-starting devices are the latest permanent addition to a perfect car equipment. Two general types are being made, one purely mechanical in its character, and the other operated by the engine itself.
The mechanical devices usually have some connection with the forwardly-projecting end of the crank shaft, where the present cranking shaft is located, and some of the inventions in this respect have an arrangement whereby the driver is able manually to operate the starter from his seat. ”