Economic geology

“ It became apparent also that these principles apply both to the economic and non-economic minerals and rocks,—in other words, that the segregation of economic minerals is a mere incident in pervasive cycles of the alterations which affect all rocks. Metamorphic geology, therefore, for some geologists becomes a convenient approach to the subject of economic geology. It has the great advantage that it tends to keep all minerals and all processes of ore deposition in proper perspective with relation to rocks and rock processes in general. ”

“ It is the writer's belief that the economic geologist stands at least as good a chance of success in exploration in the older districts as he does in new fields. Nature is exceedingly erratic and economical in providing places favorable for mineral production ”

“ The first important impetus to economic geology was given by the publication of Whitney's "Metallic Wealth of the United States" in 1854, Von Cotta's work on ore deposits in 1859, and the economic references in the textbooks of the leading European and American geologists. The recent work of Bonney, Groddeck, De Launay, Phillips, Prosepny, Van Hise, Emmons, Le Conte, Lindgren, and others has greatly advanced the interest and usefulness of the science. ”

“ One of the purposes of the introduction of a degree of economic geology, to separate the sheep from the goats, may be accomplished in another way,—namely, by the establishment and maintenance of high standards of admission and high aims on the part of the various professional societies having to do with geology and mining. ”

“ It is often assumed that the economic geologist is exclusively interested in mineral resources. However, there are varied applications of geology outside of the mineral resource field,—to many kinds of engineering and construction operations, to soils, to water resources, and to transportation,—any of which may develop legal problems requiring geologic service. ”

“ Economic applications of geology are by no means confined to mineral resources (including water and soils) . The earth is used by the human race in many other ways. Human habitations and constructions rest on it and penetrate it. It is the basis for transportation, both by land and water. Its water powers are used. In these various relations the applications of geology are too numerous to classify, much less to describe. ”

“ The part played by the economic geologist in oil exploration and development is a large one for the obvious reasons given above. Probably no other single division of economic geology now employs so large a number of geologists. Practically no large oil company, or large piece of oil exploration and development, is now handled without geologic advice. Quoting from Arnold: [29]
It ought to be as obvious that exploration with the drill should be preceded by careful geologic studies as it is that railroad construction should be based on surveys. ”

“ From time to time too much emphasis may have appeared to be laid upon applied geology as contrasted with pure science, yet the report of the National Academy to Congress in terms placed the stress upon economic resources and referred to paleontology as “necessarily connected” with general and economic geology. The practical purpose of geologic research under Government auspices must be recognized by the administrator, whether he be the paleontologist like Walcott, 211the philosopher like Powell, or the mining geologist like King. ”

“ Stratigraphy and paleontology are concerned with the sedimentary and life history of the earth. The determination of the ages of the earth's strata and of the conditions of their deposition is required in the practice of economic geology. For example, a detailed knowledge of the succession of rocks and their ages, as determined by fossils and other stratigraphic evidence, is vital to the interpretation of conditions in an oil or coal field, and to the successful exploration and development of its deposits. ”

“ Notwithstanding the immense economic importance of water as a mineral resource its value is more or less taken for granted, and considerations of valuation and taxation are much less in evidence than in the case of other mineral resources. Water must be had, regardless of value, and market considerations are to a much less extent a limiting factor. Economic applications of geology to this resource are rather more confined to matters of exploration, development, total supply, and conservation, than to attempts to fix money value. ”

“ In professional preparation for the practice of economic geology there is no easy short-cut. Students sometimes think that a smattering of geological principles, combined with a little business and economic information, may be sufficient. Analysis of professional successes should make it clear that economic geologists [Pg 3] are most effective and in most demand, not primarily because of business aptitude, though this helps, but because of their proficiency in the science of geology itself. ”

“ Geology is sometimes defined as the application of other sciences to the earth. Considered broadly, there is no phase of science which is not involved in economic geology. In other chapters in this book many references are made to applications of engineering, mathematics, physics, chemistry, metallurgy, biology, and economics.
At different times and places the requirements for earth materials are quite different. In the Stone Age there was little use for metals; in later ages the use of metals broadened. ”

“ Other phases of economic geology have been developed in studies of subterranean waters, microscopical petrology and mineralogy, the chemical analyses of rocks, etc. Among the leaders in this [Pg 174] work have been Pirsson, Emmons, Iddings, Washington, Van Hise, Clarke, and others.
The enormous metallurgical industries of to-day are all dependent upon scientific principles chiefly discovered and applied in the nineteenth century. ”

“ In short, before actual field exploration is begun, intelligent consideration of the economic factors may go far toward narrowing the field and toward converging efforts along profitable lines. Looked at broadly, this result is usually accomplished by the natural working of general laws of supply and demand ”

“ The recognition of the general fact that the world is far from explored in two dimensions, to say nothing of three, of the fact that known geologic conditions do not yet indicate definite limits to the possibilities of exploration for most mineral resources, and of the consequent fact that for a long time in the future, as in the past, discoveries of new mineral deposits will be roughly proportional to the effort and money spent in finding them,—which means, also, proportional to the demand,—makes it impossible, for most of the mineral resources, to set any definite limits on reserves. ”

“ In selecting an area to work, the geologic explorer will naturally consider various factors mentioned in succeeding paragraphs; but the natural first impulse is to start for some place where no one else has been, and to keep away from the older principal mining camps,—on the assumption that such grounds have been thoroughly explored and that their geological conditions bearing on exploration are fully understood. It is safe to say that very few mineral districts are thoroughly understood and explored. ”

“ Nature has taken many long geologic periods to build up these reserves. We, of the present generation, in a sense hold them in trust; they are entailed to our successors. With this general thought in mind, how shall we proceed to formulate definite plans for conservation?
An initial step is obviously a careful taking of stock. With increasing knowledge of mineral resources, it is becoming apparent that early estimates of supplies were too low. Many of these estimates failed to take into account mining to great depths, and wide use of low-grade ores, rendered possible by improved methods ”

“ Of course, it is to be remembered that the total benefits from mineral resources are not to be measured in terms of gain to the producers,—but that their measurement must take into account the satisfying of all the complex demands of modern civilization. ”

“ Some mineral commodities have so many different kinds of origin in different regions that to distribute them among several genetic groups in description would make it impossible to preserve the unity necessary for consideration of the economic features. ”

“ Agricultural entry may not be made on lands containing valuable minerals, nor coal entry on lands containing gold, silver, or copper; lands included in desert entries or selected under the Carey Act must be desert lands; enlarged-homestead lands must not be susceptible of successful irrigation; placer claims must not be taken for their timber value or their control of watercourses; and lands included in building-stone, petroleum, or salt placers must be more valuable for those minerals than for any other purpose. ”

“ In general, the use of mineral resources on a large scale may be said to have started within the lifetime of men still active in business. The wide use of power necessary to an industrial age, the development of metallurgy, the increasing size and complexity of demands for raw material, mean that the intensive development and use of our mineral resources is in its infancy, and is in many respects in an experimental stage. ”

“ Where the mineral resource has passed from government control into private ownership, exploration is a matter of commercial arrangement between the explorer and the owner. There is often some lag in exploration, especially where the lands are held in considerable blocks. The owner is often not inclined, or unable, to institute effective exploration himself; and even though he is willing to offer favorable exploration terms to others, the inducement is often less attractive than on government lands. ”

“ In the long run the economic geologist succeeds because he knows the fundamentals of his science, and not because he has mere facility in the empirical economic phases of his work. Of course there are exceptions to this statement,—there are men with a highly developed business sense who are successful in spite of inadequate scientific training, but such success should be regarded as a business and not a professional success.
Geology is sometimes described as the application of other sciences to the earth. ”

“ Not only is structural study necessary for the interpretation of geologic history, but it is often more directly applicable to economic problems,—as when, for instance, ore deposits have been formed in the cracks and joints of rocks, and the ore deposits themselves have been faulted and folded. Water resources are often located in the cracks and other openings of rocks, and are limited in their distribution and flow because of the complex attitude of deformed rocks. ”

“ To devote attention from the start merely to practical and commercial features, rather than to scientific principles, brings the student at once into competition with mining engineers, business men, accountants, and others, who are often able to handle the purely empirical features of an economic or practical kind better than the geologist. ”

“ The classification of the public mineral lands by government agencies is fully discussed by George Otis Smith and others in a bulletin of the United States Geological Survey. [37] The purposes, methods, and results of this classification should be familiar to every explorer. Nowhere else is there available such a vast body of information of practical value. Quoting from this report:
A study of the land laws shows the absolute necessity of some form of segregation of the lands into classes as a prerequisite to their disposition. ”

“ The assumption that mineral resources, which are wasting assets, accumulated through long geologic periods, are peculiarly public property,—not to be allowed to go into private ownership, but to be treated as a heritage for the people as a whole and to be transferred to posterity in the best possible condition. ”

“ Too often the geologist fails to recognize the complexity and definiteness of the qualities required, and makes statements and recommendations on the use of raw materials based on somewhat general geologic observations. On the other hand, the engineer, or the manufacturer, or the builder often goes wrong and spends money needlessly, by failing to take into consideration general geologic features which may be very helpful in determining the distribution, amount, and general characters of the raw materials needed. ”

“ The first effect of high taxes in such camps has frequently been the curtailment of exploration and development. Later, as production has begun to approach the end of the reserves, exploration has been resumed, but only on a scale necessary to insure production for a limited period in advance. ”

“ As nations have awakened to their need of mineral raw materials and to the recent rapid depletion of these materials, they have been naturally led to inquire how long the reserves may last, and to consider prevention of waste and the more efficient use of materials, with a view to planning more prudently for future national supplies. ”

“ There is scarcely an oil field or mining camp in the world without a cherished tradition to the effect that, prior to discovery, the mineral possibilities had been reported on unfavorably by the geologists,—again implying that success has been due to the hard common sense of the horny-handed prospector. ”