Carbonated water

“ We all know how dangerous acid is in water, causing that water to act on many substances, the iron of iron vessels, the lime in soil or rock, etc., bringing iron and lime respectively into solution. Now the atmosphere contains carbonic acid, and carbonic acid occurs in the earth, being evolved by decomposing vegetation, etc. Carbonic acid is also soluble to a certain, though not large extent, in water. As we shall see, water charged with carbonic acid attacks certain substances insoluble in pure water, and brings them into solution, and thus the water soon becomes hard. ”

“ Certain firms make pure carbon dioxid (commercially known as carbonic acid [pg 366] gas) and compress it in iron tanks. These iron tanks of carbon dioxid (CO2) are shipped to soda-water fountains and soda-bottling works. Here the compressed carbon dioxid is dissolved in water under pressure,—this is called "charging" the water. When the charged water comes out of the faucet in the soda fountains, or out of the spout of a seltzer siphon, or out of a bottle of soda pop, the carbon dioxid that was dissolved in the water under pressure bubbles up and escapes,—the soda water effervesces. ”

“ Those invalids who come for the purpose of drinking the waters will find good accommodation.
These mineral waters are pungent and acidulous to the taste, and very limpid, the presence of carbonic acid is perceptible every moment by the immense quantity of bubbles which break on the surface of the water. Their temperature is 65° Fah:
Their analysis demonstrates the presence of nitrate of Lime, carbonate of Soda, sulphate of Lime, carbonate of Lime and oxide of Iron. Of the volatile principles carbonic acid gas predominates. ”

“ It is less volatile and pungent than the neutral carbonate; soluble in 4 parts of water at 55° Fahr., 3·3 parts at 62°, 2·5 parts at 96°, and 2 parts at 120°; boiling water and alcohol decompose it, with the evolution of carbonic acid gas and ammonia; by age or exposure to air, the surface assumes an opaque white colour, from its carbonate flying off, and the remaining bicarbonate being less volatile. Unlike the carbonate, it can neither be resublimed nor digested or distilled with either alcohol or water, without suffering decomposition. Sp. gr. ”

“ In specific gravity, it scarcely differs from distilled water. It nevertheless generally holds in solution common air, carbonic acid, carbonate of132 lime, chloride of lime, and a trace of nitric acid. If it be collected from the roofs of houses, after it has rained for some time, it contains sulphate of lime and occasionally carbonate of lead. The quantity of common air in rain water does not exceed 31⁄2 cubic inches in 100 cubic inches of water; it contains more oxygen than atmospherical air; the same quantity of rain water contains one inch of carbonic acid gas. ”

“ Temporarily hard water is formed by water, which contains carbonic acid, dissolving a portion of calcium carbonate or carbonate of lime. Upon boiling, the carbonic acid is driven from the water and the carbonate, being insoluble in carbon dioxide free water, is deposited. This is the cause of boiler scale, and to check this a small amount of sal ammoniac may be added to the water, which converts the carbonate into soluble calcium chloride and volatile ammonium carbonate. Permanent hardness is caused by calcium sulphate which is soluble in 400 parts of water and cannot be removed by boiling. ”

“ Like aluminium carbide it is slowly decomposed by water with the production of methane. Several basic carbonates are known, being formed by the addition of beryllium salts to solutions of the alkaline carbonates; the normal carbonate is prepared by passing a current of carbon dioxide through water containing the basic carbonate in suspension, the solution being filtered and concentrated over sulphuric acid in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. The crystals so obtained are very unstable and decompose rapidly with evolution of carbon dioxide. ”

“ All carbonates, except those of the alkali metals and of thallium, are insoluble in water; and the majority decompose when heated strongly, carbon dioxide being liberated and a residue of an oxide of the metal left. The alkaline carbonates undergo only a very slight decomposition, even at a very bright red heat. The carbonates are decomposed by mineral acids, with formation of the corresponding salt of the acid, and liberation of carbon dioxide. Many carbonates which are insoluble in water dissolve in water containing carbon dioxide. ”

“ Notwithstanding this, there was still a very active operation going on in the deposit, but it was confined to that spot. Indeed, the swarming vibrios were bound to remain there, the tartrate of lime being still more insoluble in water saturated with carbonate of lime than it is in pure water. A supply of carbonaceous food, at all events, was absolutely wanting in the bulk of the liquid. Every day we continued to collect and analyze the total amount of gas disengaged. To the very last it was composed of pure carbonic acid gas. ”

“ If the water found is too impure for drinking purposes and the trouble arises from visible animalculæ only, straining through a pocket-handkerchief is better than nothing; the carbon filter is better still; but nothing is so effective as boiling. A carbon filter is a tube with a wad of compressed carbon inserted, through which the water is sucked. As a rule clay-coloured water is comparatively innocuous, but beware of the bright, limpid water of long stagnant rock water-holes. ”

“ Moreover, the presence of so large a percentage of carbonic acid and water shows that the rock has now a different composition from that which it possessed before the period of injection, when it was in a molten condition. It is, in fact, an altered rock, altered by having had so much carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen added to it as to give it a percentage of 20.330 of carbonic acid and water. ”

“ From whatever source, however, the carbonic acid may arise, it is not the less prone to mingle with the surrounding air, and where the level of the floor of the church is below the level of the churchyard, there the carbonic acid is prone to accumulate, as, though it may be ultimately dispersed by diffusion, it may be considered as flowing in the same manner in the first instance as water, where the quantity is considerable. ”

“ The Common Gases dissolved or imprisoned by well and spring water are carbonic acid, sulpurretted hydrogen and the components of air—oxygen and nitrogen. Of these only one is dangerous—sulpurretted hydrogen—and that is easily detected by its smell, resembling that of spoiled eggs. It gives the characteristic odor to “sulphur” waters. Carbonic acid and air give to waters their sparkling quality—the former being often artificially introduced, as in “soda-water,” &c.
The Organic Matter in well, spring, and river water may be dead or living, and we will consider the two classes separately. ”

“ At the same time the vegetation is burned up by the oxygen thus obtained, forming carbon dioxide, which immediately combines with the ferrous oxide, forming carbonate of iron, which, being soluble under these conditions, is carried along by the water as it gradually finds its way by subterranean drainage to the bottom of the valley and emerges in a swamp or marsh. ”

“ Water of composition can only be determined by ignition. As has been fully shown, this process not only eliminates the water, but also destroys organic matter, decomposes carbonates and sulfids, and, to some extent, chlorids. Subsequent repeated treatment with ammonium carbonate may restore the loss due to carbon dioxid, but in many cases not entirely. The water which comes from organic matter may be approximately calculated from the humus content of the sample, but as will be seen further on the methods of estimating humus itself are only approximate. ”

“ All the carbon that is needed for the organic world, animals as well as plants, is obtained through the action of plants in extracting carbonic acid from the air. Plants and those parts of plants which are under water do not stand in direct relations with atmospheric air, but are dependent on the carbonic acid which is held in the water, and, when this is exhausted, on the dissolved bicarbonate of lime. ”

“ So strong is the affinity of the acid for the water that it breaks up the chemical combination between it and the carbon, unites with the water, and leaves the carbon free. So intense is the chemical change that an enormous amount of heat is evolved,—so much, in fact, that a considerable part of the water is vaporized, leaving the more or less solid charcoal. ”

“ From two to ten grams of earth are employed, according to its richness in organic matter. The total carbon dioxid is obtained in this process both from carbonates and organic bodies. The water and carbon dioxid are secured and weighed in the usual manner.
The oxygen method should be used in all cases possible. Although it does not always give the whole of the carbon dioxid present as carbonates, the rest can be easily estimated by treating the residue in the boat with hydrochloric acid, in an apparatus for estimating that gas. ”

“ Copper binds the CO2•− intermediate and reduces the CO to higher reduction products such as hydrocarbons (methane, ethylene, etc.) and alcohols. The last group (Ni, Fe, Pt, and Ti) does not reduce CO2 directly, strongly binding hydrogen to produce hydrogen only. Mechanism for electrochemical CO2 reduction on metal surfaces in water (Jones et al., 2014) . The pH of the solution impacts the CO2 solubility as well as the first CO2 reduction competition reaction, the hydrogen evolution reaction. ”

“ The carbon dioxide, which is present in rain water, is obtained from the air through which the rain passes. Carbon dioxide is also taken up by the water as it percolates through ground covered with vegetation. The presence of this gas increases the solvent powers of the water. Water may also contain metal in solution such as iron, arsenic and copper. ”

“ Carbonic acid seems to retard in some way the oxidation of the iron, and it is occasionally present in ground-waters in considerable quantity, and quite seriously interferes with the process. It can be removed sufficiently by aeration, but the necessary amount of exposure to air is much greater than that required to simply introduce oxygen. ”

“ The process consists in using solar energy to fix the carbon of carbonic acid, and thereby to store this energy as we should store that of a water-carrier by employing him to fill an elevated reservoir: the water, once brought up, can set in motion a mill or a turbine, as we will and when we will. Each atom of carbon fixed represents something like the elevation of the weight of water, or like the stretching of an elastic thread uniting the carbon to the oxygen in the carbonic acid. ”

“ Permanently hard waters contain the sulphates of Ca and Mg, which cannot be removed by boiling, but may be by adding (NH4) 2CO3. 253. The Formation of Caves in limestone rocks is due also to the solubility of CaCO3. Water collects on the mountains and trickles down through crevices, dissolving, if it contains CO2, some of the CaCO3, and thus making a wider opening, and forcing its way along fissures and lines of least resistance into the interior of the earth, or out at the base of the mountain. ”

“ Water is the most neutral of bodies: usually producing little chemical alteration in the substances with which it combines; and being expelled from most of its combinations by a moderate heat. Carbonic acid is a relatively feeble acid: the carbonates being decomposed by the majority of other acids and by ignition. The various hydro-carbons are but narrow in the range of their comparatively weak affinities. The compounds formed by ammonia have not much stability: they are readily destroyed by heat, and by the other alkalies. ”

“ By using this carbonate of soda you may dispense with soap, and so be able, even with a hard or calcareous water, to do your wool-scouring without anything like the ill effects that follow the use of soap and calcareous water. The carbonate of soda solutions ought not to exceed the specific gravity of 1° to 2° Twaddell (11⁄2 to 3 oz. avoird. per gallon of water) . The safest plan is to work with as considerable a degree of dilution and as low a temperature as are consistent with fetching the dirt and grease off. ”

“ The funnel is filled with dilute, boiled sulfuric acid, the cork of b replaced and connected with the carbon dioxid apparatus. The burner under A is lighted and acid let in. By continued boiling, all the hydrogen is driven into D, the 394carbon dioxid being absorbed. The measuring tube is then placed in a tall cylinder of water, the volume of gas read and reduced to 0° and 760 millimeters barometric pressure. To be certain that all carbon dioxid is absorbed, some fresh potash-lye may be introduced into D by carefully opening d. ”

“ It naturally follows that if along with the requisite temperature sufficient pressure is applied, liquefaction of carbon will take place, when on cooling it will crystallise. But carbon at high temperatures is a most energetic chemical agent, and if it can get hold of oxygen from the atmosphere or any compound containing it, it will oxidise and fly off in the form of carbonic acid. Heat and pressure therefore are of no avail unless the carbon can be kept inert. ”

“ Such carbon is a solid, without smell or taste, and bears the strongest heats of our furnaces without suffering any change, provided air be excluded: it is a bad conductor of heat, but conducts electricity very well. When burned, it unites with oxygen, and forms carbonic acid, the fixed air of Dr. Black, the choke-damp of the miner. When this carbonic acid is made to traverse red hot charcoal it dissolves a portion of it, and becomes carbonic oxide, which contains only one half of its volume of oxygen ”