Coalescence

“ Standard errors for coalescence estimates and efficiency of a sample for coalescence time calculation (ρ/nδ2) were calculated following [60] . Coalescence times were further calculated with the exclusion of tribal populations sequences, yet preserving the cluster topology (coalescence times marked with an asterisk) . A more intense genetic drift (particularly founder effects) could introduce a bias into the coalescence time calculation (for example, see below the coalescence time of haplogroup M18 with and without the Lodha sample) . ”

“ Now, when on the one side even the not-distinguished elements are protected against the coalescence to which they incline, on the other the distinct elements which keep the two combinations asunder are themselves drawn in to the inclination towards coalescence. ”

“ Following Augustin Pyranius De Candolle, botanists have applied the term cohesion to the coalescence of parts of the same organ or of members of the same whorl; for instance, to the union of the sepals in a gamosepalous calyx, or of the petals in a gamopetalous corolla. It may arise either from a union between organs originally distinct, or more frequently from a want of separation between parts, which under general circumstances become divided during their development. Nothing is more common as a normal occurrence, while viewed as a teratological phenomenon it is also very frequent. ”

“ We know that the resistance of bodies is, chiefly, in proportion to their density. Absolute coalescence is absolute density. Where there are no interspaces, there can be no yielding. An ether, absolutely dense, would put an infinitely more effectual stop to the progress of a star than would an ether of adamant or of iron. ”

“ In coalescence ending consonant [m] elides. 332/36 Words with [n] -ending In case relation, [n] -ending changes its form to [r’] in coalescence. 333/37 The words [man] = (a suffix particle) , [sin] = (a suffix particle) , [aan] = (instrumental case morpheme) , [iin] = (ablative case morpheme) , [pin] = (locative case morpheme) , [mun] = (locative case morpheme) and verb relative particle coalesce in the same way as above changing its end into [r’] . 334/38 Word [vayin] = (place) with the prefix demonstrative word-letters and interrogative word-letters coalesce as above ”

“ There are six kind of words structurally formed with the end shorted- [u] : 1 upon two-letter, 2 upon vowel, 3 upon depending-h, 4 upon hard consonant, 5 upon soft consonant and 6 upon medial consonant. 407/1 That u upon two consonants does not be considered ‘medial upon’. 408/2 One unit of sound - In coalescence, the shorted u with half unit sound will be articulated with one unit of sound before consonant-initial word, in both case-sense and non-case-sense. ”

“ Words within brackets are definitions or examples of the old commentators of 13th century. Secondary or depending phoneme Shortened- [m] clusters [i] before [y] (kee’n’miyaa) 34/1 Shortened [u] will be discussed forthwith. 35/2 Six hard [u] blend vowel-consonants on long-phoneme and compound phonemes, [u] becomes short. 36/3 Vowel [u] becomes short even between compound words. (sukkukoo’du) 37/4 Softening-phoneme [h] (ஃ) stands between short-phoneme and one of the six hard [u] blend vowel-consonants. 38/5 Softening-phoneme [h] becomes in ending-word changing-coalescence. ”

“ Similarly with coal and air: the hydrogen and carbon of the coal have affinities or attractions toward the oxygen of the air, and when I bring them together at a high temperature (of which more hereafter) they rush into one another's embrace to form carbonic acid and water, while their energy is given off as heat or motion of the surrounding bodies. We might have whole minefuls of coal at our disposal; but if we had no oxygen to unite with it, the coal would be of no more use than so much earth or stone. ”

“ It is assumed that it is, within the knowledge of all that, for the origin of the various seams and beds of coaly combinations which exist in the earth's crust, we must look to the vegetable world. If, however, we could go so far back in the world's history as the period when our incandescent orb had only just severed connection with a gradually-diminishing sun, we should probably find the carbon there, but locked up in the bonds of chemical affinities with other elements, and existing therewith in a gaseous condition. ”

“ But, if we work in a medium free from oxygen and all other foreign elements, they react upon one another, and a multitude of bodies are formed or decomposed by the interchange of elements, and the mixture we get when the heat is removed is a mixture of new elements. So, solid and dry coal gives the coal-tar liquids and illuminating gas, which did not exist in it, but were formed under the influence of heat. ”

“ It would therefore appear that the molecules of a liquid may have slight cohesive attraction for each other, even when the temperature is sufficient to cause repulsion between the particles of its vapor; and also that when the freezing point is reached, the cohesion may not be sensibly increased until some disturbing cause operates. The modifications of cohesive attraction are the cause of those different properties of bodies which are called tenacity, hardness, ductility, and elasticity, and will be treated under their appropriate heads, and in the article Strength of Materials. ”

“ Changes may take place in regard to the state of the Matter, but the sum-total of Matter throughout all the changes remains unaltered. Thus when we burn coal, it is changed into carbonic acid by combination with the oxygen of the atmosphere; when sugar is put into water, it simply passes from the solid to the liquid condition. If a piece of iron or steel is allowed to rust, the surface of the iron has entered into combination with the oxygen and water of the atmosphere, and formed a new substance. ”

“ The energy liberated in the contraction of the sun from infinity to its present dimensions would, if turned into heat, suffice to raise 47,000,000 globes of water, each having the same mass as the sun, through 1° Fahr.
It is found by experiment that 1 lb. of good coal may develop 14,000 units of heat, and is therefore equivalent to 14,000 × 772 foot-pounds of work. A mass of coal equal to the sun would therefore (granted oxygen enough) be equivalent to 14,000 × 772 × M foot-pounds of work. ”

“ In solids, the cohesion is usually strong, so that more or less force is required to sunder the mass—that is, to separate the molecules. The resistance of cohesion is usually expressed in such terms as tension, torsion, shearing, etc. In the liquefaction of a solid, or the vaporization of a liquid, the force employed to overcome cohesion is measured in terms of heat. For instance, in the liquefaction of ice, about 147 times as much heat is required to change ice at 32° to water at 32° as will raise the temperature of the same weight of water one degree Fahrenheit in temperature. ”

“ Traces of coal gas are known to enhance the phototropic excitability of an organ while continued absence of oxygen is found to depress it. The experiment I am going to describe shows: (1) the enhancement of phototropic excitability on the introduction of coal gas, and (2) the depressing effect of excess of coal gas and of the absence of oxygen. After obtaining the normal curve of geotropic torsion, light was applied below at -L, and exact balance was obtained in the course of two minutes as seen in the top of the curve becoming horizontal. ”

“ But why they do not begin to coalesce as soon as the liquid is supersaturated it is difficult to say. We have to conceive the alum solution as made up of moving particles of alum and of water, and it may be that the particles are constantly coalescing into minute groups, but as rapidly being broken up again, until a moment arrives at which the alum particles are sufficiently dense to cohere permanently; but how they attract one another and arrange themselves into the wonderful structure which makes a crystal, of this we are entirely ignorant. ”

“ Though there is great diversity in the Carboniferous coals, and it would be absurd to express their composition by a single formula, it may be said that, over the whole world, these coals have characteristics, as a group, by which they can be recognized, the result of the slow decomposition of the tissue of plants which lived in the Carboniferous age, and which have, by a broad and general change, approximated to a certain phase in the spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue. ”

“ It is true that in the animal body oxygen can unite directly with carbon and hydrogen without the necessity of a high temperature, which we saw was indispensable in the case of the coal, in order to bring the two sets of atoms within the sphere of their mutual attractions. ”

“ Probably not, for most of the body fluids are of that colloidal nature in which coagulation occurs in the presence of small quantities of special agents. Such a result might cause the individual to lose his equilibrium. ”

“ Its significance in Biology is self-evident; let us appeal to Chemistry.
When a piece of coal is thrown on the fire, we say that it will radiate into the room a certain quantity of heat. This heat, in the popular conception, is supposed to reside in the coal and to be set free during the process of combustion. In reality, however, the heat energy is only in part contained in the coal. It is contained just as truly in the coal's Environment—that is to say, in the oxygen of the air. The atoms of carbon which compose the coal have a powerful affinity for the oxygen of the air. ”

“ Heat is set free when coal burns. This disengagement of heat is a physical phenomenon; but the change during combustion which coal undergoes is a chemical phenomenon. So the objects may be the same, but the circumstances in which they are placed, and the forces which act upon them, may change their appearance or position.
This brings us at once to the Forces of Nature, which are three in number; viz., Gravity, Cohesion, and Affinity, or Chemical Attraction. The phenomena connected with the last-named forms the Science of Chemistry. ”

“ In a manufacturing plant the last two reactions take place in one process. Sodium sulphate, coal, and powdered limestone are heated together to a rather high temperature. The coal reduces the sulphate to sulphide, which in turn reacts upon the calcium carbonate. Some limestone is decomposed by the heat, forming calcium oxide. When treated with water the calcium oxide is changed into hydroxide, and this prevents the water from decomposing the insoluble calcium sulphide. ”

“ Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, so prepared as to exclude all floating particles, produce, when poured or blown into the beam, the darkness of stellar space. Coal-gas does the same. An ordinary glass shade, placed in the air with its mouth downwards, permits the track of the beam to be seen crossing it. When coal-gas or hydrogen is allowed to enter the shade by a tube reaching to its top, the gas gradually fills the shade from above downwards. ”

“ We are therefore entitled to declare that this substance consists of ultimate particles, which can not be divided without changing them into other kinds of matter. These are its molecules. Next, in the light of chemical synthesis, also, we may see the existence of these ultimate particles.
Hydrogen and oxygen are the inevitable constituents of water, and two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen are the invariable proportions. No human agency can obtain water by combining any other elements, nor by combining these in any other proportions. ”

“ As for example, there is a certain salt, and that only, that can coagulate, and turn into a body like to it self, even common water, which can be fixed in a very little time, with, and by one only certain mineral, which is very volatile. Minerals also may be fixed by metals, and metals, (a thing which I never yet tryed) by a certain thing more excellent than metals, without all doubt. But therefore it is needful in the fixation of minerals to begin with the coagulation of water, whereby it is turned into salt ”

“ All bodies are probably affected by light, but it acts with greatest energy on such as are of weak chemical affinity, imparting properties to them which they did not possess before. Collodion and metallic salts, especially those of silver, whose molecules are held together by an unstable equilibrium, are of all bodies the most susceptible of its influence; the effects, however, vary with the substances employed, and with the different rays of the solar spectrum, the chemical properties of which are by no means alike. ”

“ Lastly, the great difference in diffusibility between colloids and crystalloids, makes possible in the tissues of organisms a specially rapid re-distribution of matter and motion; both because colloids, being easily permeable by crystalloids, can be chemically acted on throughout their whole masses, instead of only on their surfaces; and because the products of decomposition, being also crystalloids, can escape as fast as they are produced: leaving room for further transformations. ”

“ A large number of the substances which consume oxygen during their decomposition and decay have also been produced by the intermediation of the coal which had previously been deposited under liberation of oxygen, so that these substances are, by their oxidation, restored to their original state. ”

“ It is not until solid matter rises from the crystalline to the higher condition of the colloid, that it becomes capable of absorption, diffusion, and even of assimilation; that, in a word, it assumes relations to the external world which show that it possesses an individuality higher than the cyrstal, and is, in fact, endowed with many of the activities belonging to those masses of colloidal matter which biologists have agreed to call living. ”