Fan Chuo

“ The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century. The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu River Valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. ”

“ In ancient times, this Yunnan-Guizhou plateau/Sichuan basin transition area was the domain of the Bo people, whose neolithic but similarly cliff-inspired culture incorporated hanging cliff tombs, a tradition still preserved to this day in only one location by an offshoot emigrant community who moved to Bainitang in Wenshan prefecture, southeastern Yunnan. Sadly that community is now endangered by open cut mining. See for example this Chinese source for further information on the pass itself, which is discussed further subsequently in this section of the text. ”

“ It is interesting to note, given the early period in history discussed, that Confucius (551–479 BCE) was from Qufu in Shandong (山东曲阜) , which is virtually the opposite side of China, and that Zhugeliang hailed from the same region, a mere 50km to the east of Qufu in modern Yinan county (沂南县) .↑ The character {曰鬥} is of unknown pronunciation but presumably refers in its initial radical 「曰」to 'speech' or rather the idea of the creation of noise, and in its latter 「鬥」 ("gate" or "pass") radical to the a river passing betwixt a deep or tight gorge. ”

“ Traditionally the bark is harvested in March to May. The active ingredient, berberine, was supposedly used in China as a folk medicine by Shennong around 3000BCE according to The Classic of Herbal Medicine (神農本草經) , a lost book of herbal knowledge believed to be compiled from oral traditions around 200-250CE. There are two species: Phellodendron amurense is from north-eastern China and was probably the more common point of reference for Chinese like our author. That said, Phellodendron chinense grows in the Yunnan region and may have been known from Sichuan. ”

“ To aid in identification, we could assert that a skin boat of the simple inflated type that is most likely referenced would have been most appropriate for relatively broad river in a relatively mountainous or remote location, given that a settled agricultural zone with higher population, specialist workers and frequent need to cross the water would likely provide rapidly for comfortable crossing by bridge or more permanent/sophisticated watercraft. ”

“ It is suspected that in the Nanzhao section of the New Book of Tang that 朱 ("pearl") is recoded in error and should be 光 ("shining") .) with rhinoceros horns and copper braids, [4] go barefoot, and move so rapidly [5] that it is as if they are flying. 每百人,羅苴佐一人管之。 For every hundred men there is one Luó​jū​ (羅苴; lit. 'Hemp Gatherer') . 負排,又從羅苴中揀入,無貝數。 Men do not hold military rank-and-file formation, but rather attack in a wedge behind their commanding Luó​jū​ (羅苴) . ”

“ This is interesting given the context, possibly emphasizing learnedness with regard to Chinese language and custom versus barbarian ways.↑ Earthen burials could be argued to be one of the defining characteristics of Chinese civilization. Not all of the non-Chinese peoples of the region under discussion necessarily buried their dead, though some did bury their nobility, for example the pre-Chinese Shu Kingdom of Sichuan. ”

“ Architecture Original Translation 凡人家所居,皆依傍四山,上棟下宇,悉與漢同,惟東西南北,不取周正耳。 Regarding the ordinary people's houses, they are always constructed similarly to four ‘山’ characters, with a high ridgepole and lower eaves. They are very similar to Han Chinese houses, but always face north-south-east-west and as such do not properly accord with their endemic environs. [18] 別置倉舍,有欄檻,腳高數丈,雲避田鼠也,上閣如車蓋狀。 Barns are separate to residences, and are fenced-off. They are a few zhàng​ (ie. about 10 meters) in height, the upper portion being resistant to rodents, and resembling vehicles in their manner of covering. ”

“ Shāng​làng​ (湯浪) is located where the current slows." however this seems less likely to me (though do not hold this opinion up as unassailable, by any means!) for a few reasons: (1) There is no precedent for discussing a particular location, rather the established context is a range of locations either side of the mountains. (2) The use of 也 is (to my inexperienced eyes) a classical Chinese flourish in this later-period text which alludes to the elevation of the prior phrase to literary modes of interpretation (note that Shāng​làng​ (湯浪) quite possibly rhymed in the Tang Dynasty) . ”

“ More sophisticated boats in the region appear to have been limited to Yunnan's major lakes, the Red River (technology via Vietnam) and the edge of the Sichuan basin, these were of wood rather than skin and probably represented a completely different and independent evolutionary lineage of watercraft.↑ In modern times, the name apparently refers to the town of Liuku, capital of Nujiang prefecture in far western Yunnan (bordering Burma's Kachin State) . ”

“ In a modern Nuosu Yi Dictionary, "domu" means knife — "ꅅꃅ ddox mu (do34mu33) n. 刀 knife (any kind) cf-sns ꊮꀨ" — and in alternate/specialised words, single phoneme qualifiers are known to follow. 鐸 duó (Middle Chinese: dak) Almost certainly part of a dual-phoneme semantic for knife. — Otherwise, as above. 摩 ​mó (Middle Chinese: muɑ, muɑH) Almost certainly part of a dual-phoneme semantic for knife. — Otherwise, as above. 郱 ​​píng (No available middle Chinese reconstruction, presumably similar to bi?) duwng dak/ tóng​duó​ (同鐸) — Almost certainly an Yi word. Probable meaning "bronze of cutting". ”

“ Nanzhao) . 其國用銀錢,以青磚為圓城,周行一日程。 The country uses silver money, green-blue bricks for its city walls, which take a full day to walk around. 百姓盡在城內,有十二門。 All of the regular people dwell within the city, and there are twelve gates. 當國王所居門前有一大像,露坐高百余尺,白如霜雪。 In front of the king's residence is a great statue, which seated outdoors is over 100 chǐ​ (ie. 33 meters) in height, white as snow. 俗尚廉恥,人性和善少言,重佛法,域中並無宰殺。 Traditional customs are followed, the people are of a good-natured character and do not idly chatter, seriously respecting [6] Buddhist law, and nothing is killed in the region. ”

“ No other interpretation presents itself as meaningful in context.↑ The initial component of 金马碧鸡 (lit. "Golden Horse [Mountain] [and] Jade Chicken [Mountain] ") referring to the west and east mountains on either side of Kunming, said to be facing one another, and named according to legend explained in the previous chapter of this translation.↑ The specification of this (north-eastern side of the eastern range) as the water source is interesting, though probably not entirely accurate as the watershed obviously includes all sides of the lake-valley plateau. ”

“ Wikipedia↑ Or possibly Mángchéng​, should you be a historical linguist investigating possible phonetic etymologies.↑ Possibly not literally referring to silk but rather to some other fine form of cloth.↑ The phonetics are literally 「娑羅籠」 (suō​luó​lǒng​) , which breaks down semantically as (dance/frolic/lounge) + (lightweight fabric; with this ancient meaning specifically preserved in Japanese - or a gauze) + (covering) and we could reasonably modernize as "casual light-fabric cover-garment". ”

“ Translation The countries of Mínuò (彌諾國) and Míchén (彌臣國) Chapter 10: Part 1 — The countries of Mínuò (彌諾) and Míchén (彌臣) Original Translation 彌諾國、彌臣國,皆邊海國也。 The countries of Mínuò (彌諾國) and Míchén (彌臣國) both lie on the ocean. 呼其君長為壽。 They call their leaders the "long-lived". 彌諾面白而長,彌臣面黑而短,性恭謹,每與人語,向前一步一拜。 The people of Mínuò (彌諾國) have white and long faces, (whereas) the people of Míchén (彌臣國) have dark and short faces; (both peoples) have a solemn and respectful character, and take part in prayers which are offered (as) frequently (as once per step) . 國無城郭。 The countries have no city walls. ”

“ According to this Baidu Baike entry, Shenchuan has been identified by scholars as option one — the upper Yangtse valley itself — and in context, we can safely further limit that identification to areas upstream from Tiger Leaping Gorge (虎跳峡) .↑ One could assume that these two towns were likely to have been those along the more eastern portion of the river valley, ie. closer to Tiger Leaping Gorge (虎跳峡) . ”

“ An earlier version of Hanoi, the dominant delta-region settlement for the Red River in what is now northern Vietnam. The route would almost certainly have involved descending to the Red River, probably down one of the valleys in the general vicinity of Jianshui or Gejiu, probably after moving south from the lakes of central Yunnan via Tonghai, then following the Red River either by foot and mule or perhaps even descending by boat. ”

“ Buffalo Domesticated water buffalo on a bronze belt buckle of the Dian culture, circa Kunming, third century BCE. Swamp buffalo were domesticated in China about 4000 years ago. Deer Barking Deer (Muntiacus) . Fish and Water Animals Gharial fresh water crocodile. Elephants Asian elephant in the wild. Culinary Resources Endangered Indochinese leopard in captivity; apparently eaten in ancient Yunnan. Weaponry Bronze sword with a head-hunting theme from the Dian culture of ancient Yunnan (circa 100BCE) unearthed at Jiancheng and displayed at Yunnan Provincial Museum, Guandu, Kunming, 2016. ”

“ Part 1 — Southern Customs Original Translation 南俗:務田農菜圃,戰鬥不分文武,無雜色役。 It is southern custom that agricultural affairs and military affairs are segregated, and corvée military service is not employed. 每有征發,但下文書與村邑理人處,克往來月日而已,其兵杖人各自賫,更無官給。 When each military campaign begins, writ is sent to each village and town, specifying the lunar month and solar day of summons and no further information. Each soldier presents individually, and there is no further oversight. ”

“ Clothing Original Translation 其蠻丈夫一切披氈,其余衣服略與漢同,唯頭囊特異耳。 The married men all wear drapes over their shoulders, (their?) other clothes are not dissimilar to the Chinese, though their tóu ​náng​ (頭囊; lit. 'head pocket'; ie. apparently a form of traditional native headgarb) are particularly beautiful. 南詔以紅綾,其余向下皆以皂綾絹。 Nán​zhào​ (南詔) uses fine red silk, and all the others use coarser grade black silk. ”

“ An alternative and far less likely translation would be a place to collect men (with an emphasis on male) , perhaps with reference to the slave-taking traditions of the Yi people of the region or to a local mercenary tradition.1 2 The phrase is 過大嶺,險峻極 which was originally presumably without punctuation and could be interpreted a few ways from the basic components as follows: 過 (to cross) 大嶺 (the or a great mountain range) 險峻 (arduous/steep) 極 (extremely/top) . ”

“ Since the latter implies the former in a traditional Buddhist context, I have chosen this translation, but it my view this be taken literally in either sense without fault.↑ Traditional Buddhist lore is frequently interpreted to state that astrology is a form of fortune telling or gambling and is therefore undesirable. ”

“ Nanzhao palace's ruling family) , barbarians from all over. most often near the Yunnan kingdom, the Yuyi commanders (羽儀長) are identified and coordinate through their banners. [6] 羽儀長八人,如方內節度支衙官之屬。 Yuyi commanders (羽儀長) each oversee eight men, who at home are subordinate to their yaguan (衙官; local petty political office) . 清平官已下,每入見南詔,皆不得佩劍,唯羽儀長得佩劍。 At the Qingpingguan (清平官; ie. Nanzhao imperial palace) , those who seek audience with Nanzhao are not permitted weapons, except the Yuyi (羽儀) . ”

“ Luce instead reads both as historic reference, which seems an odd sentence structure to take given the rest of the text.↑ Emperor Tang Xuán Zōng (玄宗) 's Tiānbǎo (天寶) reign lasted from 742–756. Emperor Xuanzong (唐玄宗) (8 September 685—3 May 762) , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang (唐明皇) , personal name Li Longji (李隆基) , known as Wu Longji (武隆基) from 690—705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712—756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty. In the early half of his reign he was a diligent and astute ruler. ”

“ Given that there are suggestions he journeyed to both Sichuan and Annam, one may assume that either jackfruit is not endemic to Annam (it is surely popular these days) or he wrote this section whilst in Sichuan, prior to arriving in Annam.↑ In my interpretation, the author is afraid that accusations will be raised that he spent his time eating the local delicacies instead of performing his bureaucratic duties!↑ See note #115, chapter 2. ”

“ To the east lay the upper Mekong valley (known as the Lancangjiang in Yunnan) , itself not a highly developed region and of probably of rather dubious utility in trade. To the west was even less development and more mountains, leading through jungle to what is now still a very wild region, the Kachin state of Burma.) ↑ Dictionary suggests 60-70, but correcting for the era this seems a more likely end of the range.↑ I have reservations about interpretation here due to the topographic and cultural barriers in place between this region and China's Xī​'ān (ie. Tang Dynasty capital) ​... ”

“ Married women carry a high topknot, with gold, silver and pearl are used for decoration, and women young and old wear loose-weave [8] skirts, as well as loose-weave satin drapes. Their clothes must be held in a bunch when moving. 貴家婦,皆三人五人在傍持扇。 Elder noblewomen each have from three to five personal fan attendants. ”

“ In Luce's translation, a rope-bridge is ascribed to the Ch'ing-ch'u-p'u—T'sang-p'ang portion of the route. However, in the digital version of our Palace Museum Library edition source text, a firmly placed full stop attributes this bridge instead to the Jiā​pí​guǎn​ (伽毗館) —Qīngqúpù (清渠鋪) portion. Without additional sources, we err in favour of our edition but note this point of contention for future readers. Luce translates a phrase referring to a route stage in steep mountains as "dangerous and steep" where there is apparently no evidence for the "danger" concept in the text. ”

“ Tengchong is an ancient Han Chinese outpost in Yunnan which was used for Southern Silk Road trade with Burma for Jade, and beyond to India and possibly further afield.↑ This part is iffy. Perhaps 大賧 is a place name after all?↑ Again, probably a reference to Malaria.↑ 至 in a less common sense.↑ 河賧人↑ 彼中瘴者 — [those] [suffer - a rarer sense of 中] [miasma] [is/are/ongoing effect] ↑ Géluófèng (閣羅鳳; 712-779) was Nanzhao's second king who reigned from 748-779. ”

“ This is because, given the topography, the local commander would have probably wanted to keep his 'back to the [porous, safe] wall' (ie. high mountains between the Yangtse and Mekong valleys) which also represented more complex and mysterious topography to invaders with probably superior numbers and weaponry from the larger plateaux to the south-east. Only a single such plateau exists to the north, that of Zhongdian (Shangri-La) , and the primary access route to Zhongdian was probably the same as the modern National Highway 214 (214国道) route along Yangjiahe River (杨家河) — ie. ”

“ He also erroneously provides this mistaken version in handwritten Chinese. Luce reads the ancient Sichuan prefecture toponym 巂 as sui instead of xī, which according to my dictionary should be the correct reading. Luce misreads the description of inspectors on the Sichuan portion of the Chengdu to Yunnan route as "official civil and military". [2] Luce runs together the interpretation of subsequent statements regarding areas "beyond" (meaning under non-Chinese control — ie. west of) Yaozhou (modern Yaoan, north-west of Chuxiong) and the roads to the modern Guizhou and Guangxi regions. ”

“ Women and courtship Original Translation 南詔有妻妾數百人,總謂之詔佐。 The Nanzhao harem is several hundred women, exclusively for the imperial family. 清平官、大軍將有妻妾數十人。 The prime minister and generals each have tens of women. ”

“ Therefore, it is unclear precisely to which species he is referring.↑ Unclear.↑ Unclear.↑ The overall meaning seems to be that the vine is collected and soaked to make it supple prior to use.↑ Chinese Wikipedia suggests it is later attested in the region to have been used by the Hani for the production of musical instruments. This site suggests that it is attested to have been used in the Western Zhou Dynasty to produce military bows in central China. In addition, they are known to be slow growing. ”

“ This is also the last place that is shared between the two routes (to Vietnam and to Sichuan) described within the text, thus we may assume that it is in an eastward direction from the Dali area but not significantly north or south. The place known in the 20th century as Pǔ​péng​jiē​ (普淜街; lit. 'Roaring [like waves] street' — possibly implying busyness) seems to be a strong candidate, lying at the natural topographic intersection of the east-south-easterly route toward Kunming and the north-easterly route to the upper Yangtse or Jinshajiang.↑ Literally 'great storm (postal or relay) station'. ”

“ Festivals and holidays Original Translation 每年十一月一日,盛會客,造酒醴,殺牛羊,親族鄰裏更相宴樂,三月內作樂相慶,帷務追歡。 On the first day of the eleventh lunar month every solar year, a great meeting is convened, fruit wine is prepared, cattle and sheep or goats [7] are slaughtered, and friends and relatives celebrate amongst one another for three months, putting business aside to embrace the pleasures of life. 戶外必設桃茢,如歲旦然。 Outside those of a appropriate [sexually mature] age elope together in nature. ”

“ Luce's translation specifies a character in note number 26, page 13 that is apparently not recognized in Unicode, that of 隹 ("a bird") at the top, and 又 ("a right hand") at the bottom. Fortunately, zhongwen.com has an entry for this under zhī, which appears to accord with Luce's Wade Giles romanization and clarify the mystery.↑ Guessing by distance, possibly a town in the northern Jianshui plateau, or Jianshui itself? Apparently Jianshui was called 惠历 (Huili) by Nanzhao, who established it in the year 810 under the command of Tonghai. ”

“ The structure of the metaphor perhaps suggests that — to the civilization-obsessed Chinese, who viewed literature as its cornerstone — being overrun by wild animals is fate worse than being overrun by a rival kingdom.↑ Strange as it seems, Fan Chuo here appears to liken the Nanzhao kingdom (and any allied tribes) to ants.↑ ie. Pacify.↑ The character 羌 represents the Qiang region (ie. the greater eastern Himalayan foothills, particularly from northern Yunnan through Sichuan to Gansu) . ”

“ Other explanations are a mere transliteration, possibly in jest, of some form of endemic language such as Yi or Naxi.↑ The character 巂 has multiple pronunciations, however with the dictionary I am using this pronunciation is listed specifically as a Sichuan-related toponym, so seems the most likely candidate. Luce uses a more common reading of the character, sui, which is possibly wrong.↑ Literally 'new peaceful city'.↑ Literally 'thriving water', suggesting a fast-moving stream.↑ This toponym sounds suspiciously transliteration-like to me.↑ Unidentified. ”

“ All candidates are under the modern jurisdiction of Luzhou (泸州市; Lúzhōu shì) : two more westerly and thus perhaps more likely candidates are in its Xuyong county (泸州市叙永县; Xùyǒngxiàn) , and two are in its Gulin county (古蔺县; Gǔlìnxiàn) . ”

“ To possibly further underscore the importance of this 'southern orientation', the relatively southerly location of the Dian king's tomb (ie. at 石寨山; shizhaishan) — favourable for taxation and defence of this passage — lies at the mountains southeast of Dianchi, as opposed to anywhere near modern Kunming (then Shanchan/Tuodong) city in the north of the basin... ”

“ Luce's translation opts for one of the fen options and calls it Li-wu-fen stockade.↑ The source writes Gǔ​nán (賈男) — this would mean 'merchant man' and is unidentified anywhere. However, it looks a lot like the place 賈勇 (lit. 'Brave Merchant') below, and is thus potentially a miswritten character for the same place. In Luce's translation, it is given the latter's written form and pronunciation (though erroneously granted a -pu suffix due to Luce's misunderstanding of this area of the text) . ”

“ We side with our source edition's interpretation and consider this character separately. Distances within Yunnan and at its Borders (云南界内途程; yúnnán jiè nèi túchéng) Jiāozhǐ (交阯城) to Yángxiefai (陽苴咩城) Photo toward the Tonghai plain (and the 'ocean'-like lakes) from a temple on a mountain, taken 2009 by Christopher, Tania and Isabelle Luna. Chéngdū (成都府) to Yángxiefai (陽苴咩城) Note that the borderland region between modern Yunnan proper and the Sichuan basin through which this section's route passes is historically inhabited by the Yi. ”

“ References and notes
↑ The original Chinese uses the two characters 界内 (jiè nèi) — meaning literally (border) (internal) . Luce has interpreted this literally as a compound noun phrase (NP) , whereas we have interpreted it as a list. Our rationale is straightforward: many distances are described under foreign administrations (eg. well within Annam and Sichuan) , thus a list-based interpretation makes more sense.↑ From 將軍專知 which can be conceived as (challenge) (particular or focus) (knowledge) .. ”