Genetic engineering

“ I am simply pointing out that at the rate at which we are going the whole genetic engineering technology will end up in the hands of the political system to be used for the complete control and subjugation of man. ”

“ Recombinant DNA technology has been limited primarily to small organisms, usually bacteria. This production of new bacteria through altering genetic material has been confined to the laboratory; organisms with recombinant DNA have never been released into the general environment. ”

“ MAPPING IMMUNE RESPONSE GENES The human genome initiative and construction of genetic maps for livestock have greatly expanded our knowledge of the mammalian genome and increased the number of mapped and sequenced porcine genes. The final goal of the human genome initiative is to completely sequence the entire genome. As this goal is approached, more genes will be identified, and as their function is determined, our knowledge of how genes interact will grow immensely. ”

“ In addition, scientists have developed a method for replacing the enzyme that Gaucher's patients lack. Growing knowledge about genetic structure may someday enable scientists to transplant a normal gene into a patient's cells to replace the defective gene. ”

“ The similar physiology and genome structure between the mouse and human facilitate ortholog comparison and functional identification between the two species. To determine if differences exist between essential and non-essential disease genes we examined several parameters in our analyses, including the physiological systems affected by each disease gene, the connectivity of each gene in protein-protein interaction networks, and the genetic mechanisms by which genes cause human disease. ”

“ Each gene is considered to be responsible for the formation of a chain of amino acids in a fixed pattern. The formation is guided by the details of the gene’s own structure (which are the “instructions” earlier referred to) . This gene structure, which can be translated into an enzyme’s structure, is now called the genetic code.
Stained section of one cell from salivary gland of Drosophila, or fruit flies, reveals dark bands that may be genes controlling specific traits. ”

“ Two emerging opportunities now stand to revolutionize our understanding of the everyday life of the human genome: network genomics analyses examining how systems-level capabilities emerge from groups of individual socially sensitive genomes and near-real-time transcriptional biofeedback to empirically optimize individual well-being in the context of the unique genetic, geographic, historical, developmental, and social contexts that jointly shape the transcriptional realization of our innate human genomic potential for thriving. ”

“ The goal of the 380 students on 35 university teams from around the world was to build biological systems the way a contractor would build a house—with a toolkit of standard parts. iGEM participants spent the summer immersed in the growing field of synthetic biology, creating simple systems from interchangeable parts that operate in living cells. Biology, once thought too complicated to be engineered like a clock, computer or microwave oven, has proven to be open to manipulation at the genetic level. ”

“ Till then, in order to pursue directly the course of heredity and variation, it is evident that we must fall back on those tangible manifestations which are to be studied only by field observation and experimental breeding.
The breeding-pen is to us what the test-tube is to the chemist—an instrument whereby we examine the nature of our organisms and determine empirically what for brevity I may call their genetic properties. As unorganized substances have their definite properties, so have the several species and varieties which form the materials of our experiments. ”

“ When sequencing a whole genome, the reads are assembled into progressively longer contiguous sequences or contigs, and finally to the whole genome. Dealing with genomic data, we are used to analyzing long stretches of contiguous sequence data. This analysis lets us find not only open reading frames, but also operons, operational transcriptional units, their associated promoter elements, and transcription factor binding sites. Longer elements such as pathogenicity islands, and other mobile genetic elements are evident only when large fractions of the genome are assembled. ”

“ The synthesis of other macromolecules (giant molecules, like DNA) connected with the gene-action system is another field of active investigation. We have described how we can investigate the synthesis of proteins and RNA with radioactive isotopes, and we have given some information on the gene-action system, which is also shown in Figure 26.
The genetic material of a cell is DNA. The DNA molecule is in the form of a double-stranded helix that is supported by a protein backbone. ”

“ Just a few months ago, scientists completed the mapping of the human genome. With this information comes enormous possibilities for doing good. Through a better understanding of the genetic codes, scientists might one day be able to cure and prevent countless diseases. ”

“ We must continue to explore the heavens, pressing on with the Mars probes and the international space station, both of which will have practical applications for our everyday living.
We must speed the remarkable advances in medical science. The human genome project is now decoding the genetic mysteries of life. ”

“ If so, then perhaps genome assembly methods are the best. What if instead, as in the sharpshooter example, we are trying to have each bin include every fragment that came from a particular species, knowledge which may be useful for predicting community metabolic potential? If the level of genetic polymorphism among individual cells from the same species is high, then genome assembly methods may not work well (the polymorphisms will break up assemblies) . A better approach might be to look for species-specific “word” frequencies in the DNA, such as ones created by patterns in codon usage. ”

“ Transduction—the transfer of genetic material via a viral vector—is known to be a strong contributer to genetic diversity in prokaryotes. Metagenomic studies help us assess the magnitude of virally contributed genetic diversity. ”

“ When DNA is replicated, or copied, as the organism grows, the two nucleotide strands separate from each other by disjoining the rungs at the point where the bases meet, and each strand then makes a new and similarly complementary strand. The result is two double-stranded DNA molecules, each of which is identical to the parent molecule and contains the same genetic material. When the cell divides, each of the two daughter cells gets one of the new double strands; each new cell thus always has the same amount of DNA and the same genetic material as the parent cell. ”

“ However, now we see that genetic programming also is influenced by genetic stimuli in the form of environmental RNA. Obvious biological niches where such RNA communication could be prolific would be in the soil, where evidence for this already has been seen between plants and symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi [16] , and on the skin and in the gut of animals. ”

“ Human Social Genomics
Initial indications that social environments might significantly affect the functional activity of the human genome came from studies dissecting leukocyte gene expression profiles into genetic and environmental components [8] , [9] . Gibson and colleagues found that ∼5% of genes expressed in leukocytes showed appreciable genetic regulation (e.g., via expression quantitative trait loci) , whereas >50% showed significant differences in expression across pastoral, rural, and urban social environments [9] . ”

“ Trans-kingdom RNA signaling is now a documented phenomenon with intriguing implications for our understanding of biological interactions. Similar to ideas proposed by Sarkies and Miska on “social RNA” [41] , the presented evidence for trans-kingdom RNAi suggests that genetic interaction between organisms at the RNA level is common. Organisms become genetically programmed according to endogenous and environmental input. Hitherto, we have known these to include physical and chemical stimuli from other organisms. ”

“ These factors are not modified in the least by the environment, and their peculiarities are faithfully transmitted in heredity with all the precision of chemical law. But even these factors are all within the bounds of the species. There is not a shred of scientific evidence that either natural or artificial devices have originated a single genetic factor that was not all the time potentially latent in the ancestry, capable of being produced at will by the proper combination.
It is a universal law of living things that all forms left to themselves tend to degenerate. ”

“ Specialized expertise, teamwork, large infrastructures, complicated machinery, advanced technology, trouble-shooting, and organizational factors continue to be required when a design and engineering approach develops. Thus, even though the engineering approach of synthetic biology aims to make processes more systematic and more reproducible, this will not make it easier for anybody to engineer biology. ”

“ We have mentioned previously that there are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA, the genetic material itself, and RNA, the molecule that translates the genetic message from DNA into terms the cell can use as “instructions” for making protein. Cells differ from each other on the basis of kinds of proteins they contain, and, since differences among cells determine differences among organisms, it follows that differences in the composition of DNA serve to explain the variety in living organisms populating the world. ”

“ The discovery of the structure of DNA also set the stage for the development of recombinant DNA technology, out of which has blossomed the biotechnology industry. In just the past 10 years, some 1,300 biotechnology companies have been formed. Through biotechnology, chemists and biologists are able to design and produce novel medicines and vaccines for clinical use. ”

“ Artificial insemination, for example, permitted the propagation of valuable genomes without the sire being physically present, thereby allowing superior genetics to be spread beyond relatively small geographical areas. ”

“ Abstract Many diseases have complex genetic causes, where a set of alleles can affect the propensity of getting the disease. The identification of such disease genes is important to understand the mechanistic and evolutionary aspects of pathogenesis, improve diagnosis and treatment of the disease, and aid in drug discovery. ”

“ This annotation and search method provides a novel and efficient means to identify gene candidates and animal models of human disease, which may shorten the lengthy path to identification and understanding of the genetic basis of human disease.==Abstract== Author SummaryModel organisms such as fruit flies, mice, and zebrafish are useful for investigating gene function because they are easy to grow, dissect, and genetically manipulate in the laboratory. ”

“ The process by which a gene produces its own replica is complicated and, while it rarely goes wrong, it does misfire on occasion. Then, too, even when a gene molecule is replicated perfectly, it may undergo change afterward through the action upon it of some chemical or other environmental influence. In either case, a new variety of a particular gene is produced and, if present in a sex cell, it may be passed on to descendants through an indefinite number of generations. ”

“ Some of these mechanisms have their roots deep in the evolutionary past of the human genes which human beings have in common with other organisms and which have similar effects on the human species. Other mechanisms are derived from the peculiarities of human genetic endowment. Each individual with his predetermined genetic endowment responds differently to his environment, since each is unique by virtue of his genes. ”

“ Even where the mutational variation appears to be one of gain, as happens when a positive character appears de novo in the phenotype, or when a dilute parental character is intensified in the offspring, it is, nevertheless, interpretable as a result of germinal loss, the loss, namely, total or partial, of a genetic inhibitor. Such inhibitive genes or factors are known to exist. ”

“ If a gene is repressed, nothing happens; it remains inactive, presumably until something removes the repressing factor. But an active gene sets in motion a train of events that results in activation of one of the processes of life: The gene’s DNA directs the manufacture of RNA, which in turn brings about the synthesis of a specific protein to carry out a specific metabolic process. In other words, all the activities of the cell are dictated by active genes (the DNA molecules) through the mediation of RNA and are executed by proteins. ”

“ GENOME EDITING
For decades, people have been yearning for being able to permanently alter the DNA, by inserting or deleting genes or specific pieces of DNA. The reason is that this process can be applied to agronomy, veterinary and human medicine. ”

“ Broad claims are made about both the potential benefits and the potential hazards of genetically engineered organisms. Use of recombinant DNA may lead to welcome advances in such areas as food production and disease control. ”

“ Research proved long ago that artificial mutations could be produced in the genetic material of the cell. What is not so widely known is that the series of tests in the clinics of the Genetic Center, which every expectant mother undergoes in the second month of pregnancy, are actually a course of treatment. ”

“ One of the fundamental laws of modern biology—which states that the DNA content of somatic cells is constant for any given species—was first set forth in a research report of 1948. This finding means that in any given species, such as a mouse or a man, all cells except the germinal cells contain the same amount of DNA. Germinal cells, that is, the sperm cells of the male semen and the female egg, contain exactly half the amount of DNA of the somatic cells. ”

“ The animals most commonly used in studies of genetics and mutations are certain species of fruit flies, called Drosophila. The American geneticist, Hermann J. Muller, devised techniques whereby he could study the occurrence of lethal mutations anywhere along one of the four pairs of chromosomes possessed by Drosophilia.
A lethal gene, he found, might well be produced somewhere along the length of a particular chromosome once out of every two hundred times that chromosome underwent replication. ”