Various

“ Seven years before the death of Pestalozzi the first public grant for education was made by the British Parliament, and from that time up to the present the Government has continued to extend its power over the education of the country. For a long time the Government in Britain was satisfied to subsidize elementary education; but later it insisted on hard-and-fast lines of instruction. So thoroughly were these regulated in most countries that a French Minister of Education could boast he was able to say what work every child in France was engaged in at that particular moment. ”

“ It is the instrument employed by the State for the training of its citizens.
The Greeks were the first Europeans to treat education as a science. The results they obtained were good, and have to a certain extent determined the course taken by European education ever since. Plato defined the aim of the education of which he gives us an account in the Republic, to be the "development in the body and in the soul of all the perfection which it is possible for them to attain". This was the Greek ideal of what education should aim at; a high ideal indeed ”

“ Though his attitude towards the universe was utterly opposed to the attitude of Locke, Rousseau drew almost all that was practical in his scheme for the education of the young from the English writer. Rousseau's work, though largely inspired by Locke, was essentially of a revolutionary kind. It held that man is the great corrupter; that "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator; and that man's handling makes everything worse". In effect he said, leave the child as much as possible alone. An attempt constantly to direct him can only result in stupefying him. ”

“ It can even be shown, as was first done by Sir J. J. Thomson, that a moving charged body possesses inertia in virtue of the mere fact that it carries a charge. The value of this inertia, or electromagnetic mass, when the velocity is small compared with that of light is, in a vacuum, for a small sphere of radius a, 2⁄3e2/a, where e is the charge. If the velocity is greater than, say, 1/10 the velocity of light, the formula for the electromagnetic mass is more complicated, and, indeed, cannot be calculated without some assumption as to the internal distribution of charge in the electron itself. ”

“ The central problem of economics is really that of how the exchange value of commodities and services is determined; since in this determination all the forces regulating production, distribution, and consumption are brought to a focus, and their action and interaction can be investigated. The study of value covers that of all forces affecting either the demand for or the supply of a commodity, including its cost of production. On the side of production, technical processes are not studied in detail, though some knowledge of them is indispensable ”

“ Osiris was not regarded as the Green One because vegetation is green; the ancient Egyptians appear to have attributed the greenness of vegetation to the Green Nile, the soul-substance of Osiris. The sap of shrubs and trees was 'Blood'—the blood of the god. Osiris continued to live after death. On earth he was in barley, fruit, &c., and in the fertilized soil. He was in the other world Judge and King of the Dead. In his underworld Paradise the souls of the dead grew corn and cultivated fruit-trees—the 'food of life'. The Osirian cult had origin in the Delta of Lower Egypt. ”

“ He was, therefore, a remarkably versatile and prolific writer. His translations from the Greek tragedians were of the greatest importance in the history of Roman drama. His chief fame, however, rests upon his Annales, a great epic in eighteen books. Like all of the works of Ennius, it only survives in fragments quoted by later writers. It was a great national epic, recording the history of the Roman state from the landing of Æneas down to the poet's own time. The city itself—urbs quam dicunt Romam—may be said to have been the central figure of his poem, a nobler figure than the pious Æneas. ”

“ We cannot weigh an electron, but must determine its mass by experiments involving its motion, the word mass here meaning the ratio of the force acting on the electron to the acceleration produced, and the force being calculated from the charge and velocity of the electron on the principles of electrodynamics. An electron being entirely different in its physical nature from ordinary matter, the question arises whether its mass, as calculated in this way, is actually a definite constant, as it is for a material particle, according to the accepted principles of Newtonian dynamics. ”

“ In a military sense a spy means a man, whether soldier or civilian, who penetrates in disguise behind the enemy lines and brings back information about his dispositions. By the customs of war the penalty inflicted on a spy caught in the act is death after trial; but should a man known to have acted as a spy on some former occasion be subsequently captured in the course of military operations, he cannot be punished for his former act, and must be treated as a prisoner of war. ”

“ To the famous schools both in England and on the Continent scholars flocked from all parts, and their instruction presented little difficulty, as Latin, the language in which the instruction was given, was the common language of scholars in Western Europe. The establishment of universities in different countries was a sign rather than a cause or result of that intellectual and spiritual awakening which, after nearly a thousand years of almost complete stagnation, manifested itself among the peoples of Europe. ”

“ Although the practical applications of electrical phenomena have all been developed within the last fifty years, the production of an electric charge by friction, as demonstrated by the power of rubbed amber to attract light bodies, was observed by a Greek philosopher as long ago as 600 B.C. The Greek name for amber, ηλεκτρον (electron) , is the root from which our word electricity is derived. Friction was the only artificial source of electricity known until Galvani, near the close of the eighteenth century, accidently obtained it by the contact of two metals with the limbs of a frog ”

“ The most important causes of emigration are love of adventure, political or religious difficulties, and economic pressure. Forced emigration, in the shape of transportation, was formerly of some importance, especially in the case of America and Australia, but is now negligible; and before the European War, emigration from Russia was chiefly for political or religious reasons. To-day economic forces are the most powerful. The direction of the flow of emigration is partly determined by its causes. ”

“ Economics he defines as "a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the rise of material requisites of well-being". The separation between economics and the investigation of social phenomena in general is not so rigidly maintained to-day as in the past. It is realized that men's activities in relation to wealth are affected by other than purely economic considerations, and that political, moral, religious, and æsthetic forces must be taken into account. ”

“ Elasticity, the property in virtue of which bodies resist change of volume or of shape, and tend to regain their original bulk or shape when the deforming forces are removed. Solids possess elasticity of volume and of shape. Liquids and gases have elasticity of volume; they resist compression, but offer only a transient resistance to change of shape (see Viscosity) . The elasticity of a gas is measured by the pressure to which the gas is subjected, if there is no change of temperature. ”

“ One of the most important of modern political movements, Socialism, makes a just distribution of wealth the keynote of its doctrines. In so far as man's conduct is studied in economics, the science is concerned with psychological considerations; but it is distinct from psychology, taking the principles thereof as data rather than establishing them as conclusions. The traditional arrangement of the subject matter of economics into the production, exchange, and distribution of wealth is still maintained ”

“ It may readily be shown that when an electric current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field is produced around that conductor, i.e. that a magnetic field is produced by the motion of an electric field. Similarly, if a magnetic field is moved at right angles to a conductor, a potential difference is established between the ends of the conductor, i.e. an electric field is produced by the motion of a magnetic field. ”

“ Work is done when a force is overcome, and it is measured by the product of the force and the distance through which it is overcome. A quantity of energy is therefore expressed in terms of the same units as work, e.g. the foot-pound and the erg. Energy exists in two forms. Potential energy is that which a body possesses in virtue of its position. For instance, by winding up a clock weight it is given a certain amount of potential energy, which it slowly expends in driving the clock; a bent spring and a mass of compressed air also possess energy in the potential form. ”

“ The quantity of charge which each conductor will then have depends on what is called the capacity of the conductor.
The capacity of a conductor is defined as the quantity of electricity with which it must be charged in order to raise its potential from zero to unity. ”

“ In mining, the orthodox training consists of a technical course in one of the mining schools, followed by practical work in a mine. In this country every mining engineer who intends to take a position of responsibility must qualify by passing a Board of Trade examination. Sea-going marine engineering officers have, in addition to undergoing the usual training, to pass the sea-going engineers' examination of the Board of Trade. It will be seen from the above remarks that the courses of training for engineers depend entirely upon the particular branch of engineering which is to be entered. ”

“ England, during the reign of Henry VI, was subjected, in the first place, to all the confusion incident to a long minority, and afterwards to all the misery of a civil war. Henry allowed himself to be managed by anyone who had the courage to assume the conduct of his affairs, and the influence of his wife, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of uncommon capacity, was of no advantage either to himself or the realm. In France (1422-53) the English forces lost ground, and were finally expelled by the celebrated Joan of Arc, Calais alone being retained. ”

“ It is now much the practice to photograph drawings made in black and white upon the wood instead of making the drawing on the wood block. When the drawing is put on the wood by washes or by photography, instead of being entirely done by pencil lines, the engraver has to devise the width and style of lines to be employed instead of cutting in facsimile, as is the case when the drawing is made entirely in lines. The tools required for wood engraving are similar but more numerous than those of the engraver on copper or steel. ”

“ At twenty men were called upon to choose their occupation; to turn their minds to the study of the sciences; and to shape by practical military and other services to the State that character which it was the aim of education to form. ”

“ In heat engines, energy in the form of heat is converted into mechanical energy. Heat is taken in at the source, part of it is changed into mechanical energy, and the remainder is rejected to the condenser. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the efficiency of such an engine has a definite upper limit which it cannot exceed, this being the ratio of the difference of the temperatures of the source and the condenser to the temperature of the source, these temperatures being measured on the absolute scale, that is, from -273° C. reckoned as the zero. ”

“ This was the case with the Netherlands in the seventeenth century, and the United Kingdom in the early nineteenth century. The general tendency is for emigration to benefit the world as a whole by enabling labour to go where it can be most productively employed. This increases world production, opens up new markets, and so indirectly benefits the older countries. Sometimes, however, emigration may cause an industry merely to be transferred from one country to another, as in the case of the fourteenth-century Flemish emigration to England. ”

“ If he is discovered, and attempts to escape, he may be shot in the process; but if he is captured, he must be treated as a prisoner of war and not as a spy. 'B', another soldier, speaking the enemy language, disguises himself as an officer of the enemy forces, and in this disguise penetrates behind the lines and mixes with the enemy troops. ”

“ Classical or pagan culture, as profane learning, was at a discount, and the aim of the monasticism which grew out of the introduction of Christianity was mystic absorption in the contemplation of God.
This interval was followed by the efforts of Charlemagne to revive Roman culture, and to establish schools throughout Western Europe. In this he was aided by Alcuin and other scholars from England, where in the comparative quiet that followed the conquest of Britain there had grown up a system of education. ”

“ An Eclipse of the Moon is an obscuration of the light of the moon occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon; consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon. Further, the moon's direction from the earth must make only a very small angle with the axis of the earth's shadow, or line joining centres of sun and earth produced. But as the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than 5° with the plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that though the moon is in opposition it does not come within the shadow of the earth. ”

“ Any statical charge is supposed to be made up of a very great number of electrons, just as a material body is composed of atoms of matter. A metallic conductor is supposed to contain many free electrons, which normally bear much the same relation to the material molecules as a saturated vapour bears to the liquid in equilibrium with it. When an electromotive force is applied, it causes a drift of the electrons in the opposite direction to the force, the charge on the electrons being negative. It is this drift of electrons which constitutes an electric current. ”

“ By Aristotle the order of education was: first, education of the body, the just and proportionate development of its powers. The instrument employed for this purpose was gymnastics; not the gymnastics employed in training professional athletes, but more moderate exercises; for, as the philosopher insists, too strenuous bodily exertion is apt to spoil the child, because body and mind must not be hard worked at the same time. Music, according to him, had various aims: education proper, the training of the affections, and the occupation of leisure. ”

“ While it aims at assisting the defects of the common law, by extending relief to those rights of property which the strict law does not recognize, and by giving more ample and distributive redress than the ordinary tribunals afford, equity by no means either controls, mitigates, or supersedes the common law, but rather guides itself by its analogies, and does not assume any power to subvert its doctrines. ”

“ Emigration, the movement of individuals or groups from one state or country to a colony or another country, to be distinguished from migration, which describes the movement of peoples or races from one geographical area to another, and from colonization, which implies the foundation of a new state or extension of the sway of the colonists' state of origin. ”

“ His dissimulation, however, ended in his satisfying neither of the contending ecclesiastical parties—the Puritans or the Catholics; and his absurd insistence on his divine right made his reign a continuous struggle between the prerogative of the Crown and the freedom of the people. His extravagance kept him in constant disputes with the Parliament, who would not grant him the sums he demanded, and compelled him to resort to monopolies, loans, benevolences, and other illegal methods. The nation at large, however, continued to prosper through the whole of his reign. ”

“ Towards the close of the seventeenth century Locke, an English physician and philosopher, published (1693) his Thoughts concerning Education, a book which influenced immensely the character and direction of future educational studies. As he informs his readers in his letter to Edward Clarke, he counsels everyone "after having well examined and distinguished what fancy, custom, or reason advises in the case ... to promote everywhere that way of training up youth ... which is the easiest, shortest, and likeliest to produce virtuous, useful, and able men in their distinct callings". ”

“ For the child there should be "no other book but the world", and "no other instruction but facts". The child's education he divides into four stages, infancy, childhood, boyhood, and youth. The first two stages last till the beginning of the thirteenth year, when the boy is supposed to be fit for instruction. From such instruction the teaching of words must disappear, and the teaching of things must take its place. The subjects most suitable for instruction were, Rousseau declared, measuring, drawing, geometry, speaking, and singing. ”

“ As this point is often not finally settled till fairly late in a young man's career, it is possibly unwise for him to take his initial training in too narrow a groove. A sound, general technical education, combined with three or four years' experience in a general engineering works, will fit him for specializing in very many sections of engineering, whereas if he intends to enter the mining or the civil engineering professions, a sound technical course, followed by a few years' experience in civil or mining engineering work abroad will usually fit him for a specialized post later on. ”

“ While education thus understood would be the story of man on the earth, an account of his more or less satisfactory, but always continuous, efforts to perfect the relations between his desires and his environment, it would have to embrace also an account of the conflict between the demands of communities and the rights of individuals. ”