Cravat

“ Of late—that is, within, perhaps, twenty years—the Swallow-Tails of the world have exchanged the black or colored for a white cravat, and justify themselves by saying that it not only looks cleaner, but is cleaner of necessity than a silk one, and that you cannot look too clean or fresh about your throat when you present yourself in a lady's house on a festive occasion. ”

“ One youth in an excessively white, though unpleasantly stiff cravat, is assisting an equally stiff old chaperon into her place, at the expense of great physical efforts, till his cheeks are thereby suffused with a tint strongly resembling the color of a juvenile beet, while the distended veins of his forehead would make a fine anatomical study for the laborious medical student, if that fabulous biped were still extant. ”

“ When the Cravat is satisfactorily arranged, the finger must be passed lightly along the top, to smooth and thin it, and cause it to coincide with the shirt collar.
A small iron, with a handle, made expressly for the purpose, and moderately warm, is the best instrument for producing a thin and equal edge to the Cravat; it will also serve to smooth the tie ”

“ Again, neckties of moderately large pattern, and ornaments in the way of feathers and pins, or other fastenings for the cravat, all tend to diminish to the eye the appearance of weight and size, and as a rule, are as becoming on horseback to ladies of full figure as rigid plainness in habits, collars, &c., are to those of spare and delicate form. ”

“ Those who have a short neck, high shoulders, a round, full, and fresh coloured face, and who are at all subject to head aches, beatings of the temples, &c. should be most careful to wear the Cravat loose ”

“ The red claws of lobsters hung over the dishes; rich fruit in open baskets was piled up on moss; there were quails in their plumage; smoke was rising; and in silk stockings, knee-breeches, white cravat, and frilled shirt, the steward, grave as a judge, offering ready carved dishes between the shoulders of the guests, with a touch of the spoon gave you the piece chosen. On the large stove of porcelain inlaid with copper baguettes the statue of a woman, draped to the chin, gazed motionless on the room full of life. ”

“ Cravate en Coquille. The tie of this Cravat should resemble a shell; it is very pleasing, and easily formed; it consists [55] of a double or triple knot, and the ends are fastened at the back of the neck. It does not require starch, and may be worn with or without a whalebone stiffener.
The colour may be that most pleasing to the wearer.
See plate D, fig. 26.
Cravate de Voyage. Is put on in the same way as the Byron.
Cravate à la Colin. Is commenced like the Byron, Bergami, and Talma; a mere knot is made, the ends left loose, and shirt collar turned down, as shewn in the Cravate Jesuitique. ”

“ The Romans made use of chin-cloths for the protection of the neck and throat, which were termed "focalia." These were worn by public orators, who from professional considerations were fearful of taking cold, and who,{182} doubtless, contributed in no small degree to render the fashion of chin-cloths general. Some, says a writer on Roman antiquities (the Rev. Father Adam) , made use of a handkerchief (sudarium) for this purpose. This is probably the origin of the cravat, which is in many countries called neck-handkerchief.
HENRIETTA, MARQUISE D'ENTRAGUES.
Engraved by Wierix. ”

“ A veil is the best thing for the face; a piece of elastic run round the top will enable you to slip it over your straw hat and fasten it above the brim, which will keep it out from the face; a spring wire or whalebone hoop sewed in a few inches below, will keep it off your nose, and another piece of elastic round the bottom will hold it tight around [300] your cravat, so that the flies cannot make their way beneath it ”

“ There is the cravate à l’Orientale, when the neckcloth is worn in the shape of a turban, and the ends form a crescent;—the cravate à l’Américaine, which is simple, but not much to our taste, and the prevailing colours are detestable, being sea-green, striped blue, or red and white;—the cravate collier de cheval, in which, after making the noeud Gordien, the ends are carried round and fastened behind ”

“ The number of digits is always five, and with few exceptions they bear nails instead of claws. The clavicles, or "collar bones," are well developed in correlation with the prehensile nature of the fore limbs; a bony ring surrounds the orbit or eye socket. Finally there are two mammary glands by which the young are suckled. It is because any other details of difference between man and other forms are far less marked than the agreements in these respects, that the human species must be regarded as a primate mammalian vertebrate. ”

“ The bones which support the fore limb are one of the distinctive regions of the skeleton defining the animal's place in nature. Among most of the lower vertebrata, such as Amphibians and Reptiles, the girdle is a double arch—the arch of the collar bone or clavicles in front, and the arch of the shoulder-blade or scapula behind. ”

“ The cervical region is that in front of the shoulder-girdle, the dorsal that between the shoulder and hip girdles, the sacral that which supports the hip girdle, and the caudal that of the tail.
We may hardly venture to guess as to the primitive number of vertebrae in reptiles. We are quite sure that there has been an increase in number in some, a decrease in others. The land temnospondylous amphibians that we know have but one real cervical vertebra, the so-called atlas, twenty-two to twenty-five dorsals, one or two sacrals, and a short or moderately long tail. ”

“ The shoulder girdle consists of the scapula, the coracoid, and the clavicle. The fore limb consists of the arm, forearm, and the hand. The arm consists of the humerus, the forearm of the radius and the ulna; and the hand consists of the carpus, the metacarpus, and the phalanges. The pelvic girdle consists of the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. The hind limb consists of the thigh, the leg, and the foot. The thigh consists of the femur, and the leg consists of the tibia and the fibula. The foot consists of the metatarsus and the phalanges. ”

“ The inferior angle (superior and external in man) , situated at the junction of the cervical and axillary borders, presents the glenoid cavity, which, looking downwards, receives the articular surface of the superior extremity of the bone of the arm—that is to say, the head of the humerus. Above this cavity, on the lower part of the cervical border, is situated a tubercle which reminds us of the coracoid process of the human scapula. The region occupied by the glenoid cavity is separated from the body of the bone by a constriction—the neck of the scapula. ”

“ The form of the lower jaw gives a very peculiar appearance to the skeleton. The cervical vertebræ are united together by their bodies and large dorsal spines, the latter forming a thick conical process. The bodies of the dorsal vertebræ are very small, enlarging in size towards the tail; they are thirty-six in number. The four terminal caudal ones are very small, forming a kind of cylindrical process. There are eight chevron bones. The thoracic cavity is small. There are twelve ribs on each side. ”

“ In all the higher non-degraded vertebrata we find a certain uniform type of skeleton, consisting of the head, the vertebral column, and four limbs; and these last, in the various symmetrical forms, whether exemplified in the higher fish, the higher reptiles, the higher birds, the higher mammals, or in man himself, occur always in a certain determinate order. In all the mammals, the scapular bases of the fore limbs begin opposite the eighth vertebra from the skull backwards, the seven which go before being cervical or neck vertebræ ”

“ The cervical vertebrae have no ribs, except mere traces in the shape of small nodules. On the tail the ribs are often large, and, when fused with their neural supports, look like transverse processes; the whole arrangement exactly resembles that of Crocodilia. The first pair of thoracic ribs, those borne by the ninth vertebra, are peculiar. They arise from the anterior portion of the centrum, are much reduced, sometimes to mere threads of bone, and lean against the anterior rim of the second pair of ribs, in many cases without reaching the carapace. ”

“ Both jaws are destitute of teeth, and are protected by dense horny sheaths, which form powerful dentary organs. The vertebral column of the neck is exceedingly flexible, and is composed of a greater number of bones than in any other living animals; for the cervical vertebæ, which in the mammalia amount to seven, in birds vary from ten to twenty-four, as in the Swan. To admit of this extreme mobility of the neck without injury to the enclosed spinal cord, the annular part, or neural arch, of each cervical vertebra is enlarged at the extremities that form a junction with the corresponding bones ”

“ Cervical vertebrae, or those between the skull and the first vertebra which is connected with the sternum by a pair of complete ribs. The last 1 to 5 of these vertebrae have movable ribs which do not reach the sternum, and are called cervico-dorsals. (2) Dorsals, those which begin with the first thoracic rib, and end at the last that is not fused with the ilium. The term “lumbar” vertebrae is inapplicable to birds. (3) Pelvic, all those which are fused with the iliac portion of the pelvis, generally a considerable number. (4) Caudal, those which are not connected with the pelvis. ”

“ The head and neck can be placed in any attitude; the body supported, the wings closed, extended, or elevated; the tail depressed, raised, or expanded; the thighs set horizontal, or oblique, without any aid from wire. Cotton will effect all this.
A very small proportion of the skull bone — say from the fore part of the eyes to the bill — is to be left in, though even this is not absolutely necessary. Part of the wing bones, the jaw bones, and half the thigh bones remain. Everything else — flesh, fat, eyes, bones, brain and tendons — are all to be taken away. ”

“ Among the parts better preserved is a calvarium of an adult. A skull of an adult and one of a young subject, which lay a little to one side and deeper, are almost wholly shattered. Besides the preceding the excavation yielded a lower jaw, ulna, humerus, radii, parts of the pelvic bones, a femur, tibia, clavicles, vertebræ, and pieces of ribs. Of animal bones the same layer showed, according to Knies and Maška, those of Canis vulpes, Canis lagopus, Canis lupus, Ursus spelæus, Lepus variabilis, Lagomys pusillus, Rangifer tarandus, Cervus alces, and Bos priscus. ”

“ A great deal of the endless variety in the form of the skull of different mammals depends upon the differing proportions of cranium and face. In the human skull, for example, the cranium is enormously developed and forms a great dome, while the face is shortened almost to the limit of possibility; the skull of the Horse, on the other hand, goes to nearly the opposite extreme of elongation of the facial and shortening of the cranial region. The posterior surface of the skull, or occiput, is made up of four bones, which in most adult mammals are fused into a single occipital bone. ”

“ The skeleton is cartilaginous, the skull without sutures, and the notochord more or less fully replaced or inclosed by vertebral segments. The jaws are peculiar in structure, as are also the teeth, which are usually highly specialized and found on the jaws only. There are no membrane bones; the shoulder-girdle is well developed, each half of one piece of cartilage, and the ventral fins, with the pelvic-girdle, are always present, always many-rayed, and abdominal in position. The skin is covered with placoid scales, or shagreen, or with bony bucklers, or else it is naked. ”

“ The ulna has a hook-like head, the olecranon (o.) which distinguishes it easily from the distally thickened radius. The limb is attached to the body through the intermediation of the shoulder-blade (scapula, sc.) a flattened bone with a median external ridge with a hook-like termination, the acromion (acr.) . There is also a process overhanging the glenoid cavity (g.) wherein the humerus articulates, which process is called coracoid (co.) ; it is ossified from two separate centres, and represents a very considerable bone in the bird, reptile, and frog. ”

“ In many large mammals, however, especially those which have heavy horns or tusks, the cranial bones become enormously thick and the spongy layer is converted into a series of communicating chambers, or sinuses, the partitions between which serve as braces, thus [64] making the bone very strong in proportion to its weight. ”

“ The skull consists of a cartilaginous cranium, and of jaw and visceral arches. The cranium persists throughout life, in what closely resembles a transitory embryonic condition of the higher types. There is a nasal capsule (na.c.) , a brain case proper, and lateral otic (auditory) capsules (ot.c.) containing the internal ear. (This should be compared with the frog's embryonic skull.) The upper jaw has a great bar of cartilage, the palato-pterygoid, as its sole support; the arch of premaxilla, maxilla, jugal, and squamosal-- all membrane bones-- is, of course, not represented. ”

“ They include the cranium, nearly entire, with the teeth and part of the os hyoides; the seven cervical, eight of the dorsal, and five of the sacral vertebræ, the two scapulæ, left humerus, radius and ulna, two carpal bones, and an ungueal phalanx; both femora, the proximal extremities of the left tibia and fibula, and the left astragalus.
The principal parts of the cranium which are deficient are the anterior extremities of both the upper and lower jaws, the os frontis, æthmoid bone, and the whole upper part of the facial division of the skull ”

“ Since the limbs of the Insect are only the lateral filaments of the Worms, which have become hard and consequently hollow; they are as such not to be termed true feet, but are only to be compared with branchial arches or ribs; a step by which their greater number also admits of being understood. They are not to be compared with our feet, but unto the toes, which have been separated from each other as far as the rings of the body. The Crab has properly five thoracic and five abdominal toes. All its thoracic feet taken together are only equivalent to our hand. ”